Roads Less Traveled: Exploring New Possibilities in String Research

Introduction String education was a neglected area of music education in the mid-twentieth century. This resulted in the founding of many important organizations to promote string education. One of the most influential, the American String Teachers Association (ASTA), developed at a Music Educators National Conference (MENC) annual meeting in 1945 in Cleveland, Ohio. (1) In 1948, at the Music Teachers National Association (MTNA) conference, over a hundred string teachers were present for ASTA's formal inauguration. (2) Traugott Rohner, founder of The Instrumentalist magazine, voiced his concern about the need for an orchestra organization in the Music Educators Journal, as he believed school orchestra directors were ignored. (3) In 1959, eighty-eight school directors of the 133 ASTA chartered members united to develop the National School Orchestra Association (NSOA). ASTA and NSOA operated independently but often held spring conferences in conjunction with MENC. Also in 1959, the American Federation of Musicians sponsored the first International String Congress in Tulsa, Oklahoma, to encourage the professional lives of young musicians in the United States and Canada. (4) These organizations would soon be of major importance to string education and help solidify string teaching in America. in the 1950s Thousands of young service men, recently returned from World War II, were ready to start new lives with new homes and jobs in the 1950s. American industry began to expand, jobs were created, and the baby boom was underway. In 1952, the World War II general Dwight D. Eisenhower was elected president. President Eisenhower stated that America is today the strongest, most influential, and most productive nation in the world. (5) During Eisenhower's administration (1952-60), the nation experienced multiple changes. Segregation ended (1954), the highway interstate system was created (1956), and grew from a nation of forty-eight states to fifty (1959). In the music world, rock and roll was in its infancy: the voices of Frank Sinatra, Nat King Cole, and Johnny Cash were still heard on the radio. (6) In the music education field, several important events occurred during this decade. MENC established the Child's Bill of Rights in Music in 1950, to ensure that every child had the right to learn music. In 1953, the Journal of Research in Music Education published its first volume, and the International Society for Music Education had its first postwar meeting in Brussels, Belgium. MENC celebrated its fiftieth anniversary at their annual conference in 1957 and adopted the Golden Anniversary Resolution, which was intended to support music education in a postwar world and look toward the future. These events demonstrated the importance of music education in American lives. The future of American string education began to strengthen during the 1950s. The formation of ASTA strengthened string teachers' knowledge through workshops and annual conferences that provided networking opportunities. The ability to share knowledge about string education in the Music Educators Journal and the establishment of a national orchestra association could not have occurred at a better time. The formation of national string organizations also led to the formation of regional, state, and local groups that supported string education. Research Purpose and Questions The purpose of this study is to examine the history of music and string education associations on Long Island, New York, from 1950 to 1960. Through the use of artifacts, websites, and interviews with two former Long Island string educators, answers were sought for the following research questions: What organizations existed to support string education during the 1950s, and how did the economy on Long Island in that decade affect string education? This study explores the evolution and progress of five associations in New York State and on Long Island and how each was affected by the population boom of the postwar suburban era. …

Several Editorial Board members of the Music Educators Journal have suggested that the Code of Ethics for School and Youth Orchestras be printed in the Journal. This document was originally prepared by the American String Teachers Association under the direction of Paul Rolland, then president. With the increasing number of all-city and all-county youth orchestras, the ASTA felt that it was necessary to delineate the aims, purposes, and responsibilities of such groups in relationship to in-school groups. Additional copies of the Code may be secured from: American String Teachers Association, Office of Publications, School of Music, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801.

The present study was designed to examine attitudes toward private lesson teaching of a cross-section of string instrument instructors ( N = 1,617). The participant pool was drawn from the membership of the American String Teachers Association (ASTA). Results were similar in many ways to responses in previous studies also involving music faculty and music students. These groups indicated that they liked teaching, liked the challenges of teaching musicians, and believed preparation for teaching is important. Depending on the age of their students, they also enjoyed talking about pedagogical issues with students. Engaging the membership of organizations such as ASTA will be necessary if the profession is to find additional ways to provide educational opportunities for musicians interested in teaching.

This short-form article reports a content analysis of all school-based ensemble concert programs distributed at the 2015 national conferences of the American Choral Directors Association, the American String Teachers Association, and the Midwest Clinic. The purpose was to address perceptions that print and design expectations for the concert programs were elaborate and, therefore, beyond the means of schools and organizations with limited financial resources. Programs were analyzed for characteristics such as overall dimensions, number of pages, use of color and photography, letters of administrative or political support, and design intensity. Analysis revealed substantial differences between the aggregate concert programs by conference, as well as between the individually distributed programs. These differences indicate that norms for the three professional conferences afford conductors and sponsoring organizations varying flexibility to design and distribute conference concert programs. Data are examined to suggest opportunities for further flexibility.

The American String Teachers Association (ASTA) has held research poster sessions as part of its national conferences annually since 2006. From 2006-2014, 98 researchers contributed 147 original research studies to these sessions. Sixty-six of these researchers presented once, and 32 presented two or more studies. Since 2008, the research poster submissions have been juried and the research poster presentation sessions have had a designated slot in the annual ASTA conference program. An average of 17 research posters have been presented annually. The consistent number of poster submissions and the breadth of research topics may indicate the vitality of string research by ASTA members.

At the 2020 American String Teachers Association (ASTA) Conference held in Orlando Florida, an attendee of the Wellness Committee Listening Session recommended that a study be conducted to determine the prevalence and awareness of mental health concerns among students and teachers within the organization. Members agreed that there is more needed to be understood so that ASTA could provide professional development webinars, resources, as well as local, state, and national conference sessions. In response to this request and the clear need for more information, a survey was developed and deployed to the ASTA membership in the fall of 2020. Follow-up interviews with members who volunteered in response to an invitation on the survey were conducted in the spring and early summer of 2021. Teachers reported a high prevalence of student mental health issues prior to and during the pandemic and reported concerning levels of work overload, compassion fatigue/burnout, and mental health issues. Generational differences in mental health perceptions were noted, as were opportunities to provide targeted professional development and community-level services.

Robert Gillespie is director of string education and assistant professor of music at The Ohio State University, where he is responsible for the undergraduate and graduate curriculum in string pedagogy and orchestral teaching. He received his Ph.D. from The University of Michigan. A violinist, adjudicator, researcher, and clinician, Dr. Gillespie is currently principal second violin of the PRO MUSICA Chamber Orchestra of Columbus. The founder and director of The Ohio State University-Columbus Symphony Orchestra Junior Strings Youth Orchestra, and of The Ohio String Teachers Middle School Summer Orchestra Camp, he also reviews new music for the American String Teacher. Dr. Gillespie has developed a series of diagnostic videotapes for string teachers which are now available nationally through the American String Teachers Association.

The purpose of this study was to examine participating orchestras and performed repertoire at the American String Teachers Association’s (ASTA) National Orchestra Festival from 2004 through 2020. Participating orchestras ( N = 309) primarily consisted of string orchestras and high school–level orchestras with a majority originating from the Southern region of the United States. The most performed full orchestra pieces included Symphony No. 9, op. 95 by Dvořák and Symphony No. 2 by Tchaikovsky, and the most performed string orchestra piece was the Holberg Suite, op. 40 by Grieg. The most frequently cited composers were Dvořák for full orchestra and Mozart for string orchestra. The most frequently cited arrangers were Isaac for full orchestra and Dackow for string orchestra. Female composers and arrangers were highly underrepresented compared with males. Performed repertoire primarily consisted of pieces that conformed to European music traditions. Directors who are unfamiliar with orchestra literature could use these findings as a resource for commonly selected repertoire suitable for high-achieving school orchestras. In addition, findings could provide a catalyst for directors to select music that is more representative of their student population.

The purpose of this study was to examine the life and work of Frank William Westhoff (1863–1938), a leader in music education during the progressive era (circa 1890s–1950s). Research questions focused on his work as a music supervisor, teacher educator, pedagogue, and textbook author. I also explored Westhoff’s contributions to the profession and influence on music education. Westhoff was born in St. Charles County, Missouri, in 1863. He moved to Decatur, Illinois, in 1884, and in 1893 he began supervising music in the city’s public schools. From 1901 to 1935, Westhoff served as music instructor at ISNU, where he taught methods classes, directed ensembles, and supervised music in the local public schools. He died in Normal, Illinois, in 1938. Although Westhoff was not as prominent a figure in music education as those who led the field on a national level during his time, he played an important role in sustaining, perpetuating, and expanding school music on a regional basis throughout much of the progressive era. He was a founding member of Music Supervisors’ National Conference at Keokuk, Iowa, in 1907, and published numerous compositions and didactic materials, including a statewide curriculum that helped standardize music instruction in Illinois.

This study examined the status of school orchestra and string programs in Louisiana. A manual web search for string programs in parish school districts, student school affiliations from honor orchestra lists, Louisiana members of the American String Teachers Association (ASTA), and members of the Louisiana Music Educators Association was conducted to determine the approximate number of programs in the state. These data were cross-referenced with available data from the Louisiana Department of Education, which listed course offerings by school. A total of 44 teachers serving 97 schools were identified. Semi-structured interviews were then conducted with five-string teachers and two district arts coordinators from around the state to determine the strengths of current string programs and opportunities for growth. Findings from participant interviews revealed the legacy of school segregation, inadequate funding for public education, competition from non-public schools, and the challenges of maintaining program infrastructure due to limited funding and perennial natural disasters. The results of this study were compared with other statewide string program surveys to situate Louisiana string programs in a national context with implications for string teachers, music teacher education, and professional development offered.

SECTION ONE: ISSUES AND RESEARCH 1. Policy Frameworks, Research and K-12 Schooling 2. MENC: A Case in Point 3. Recent Trends and Issue in Policy-making 4. Law Research and Music Education INTRODUCTION: TOWARD AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE 'AIMS OF MUSIC EDUCATION' 1. Contemporary Curriculum Practices and Their Theoretical Bases 2. Theory, Research, and the Improvement of Music Education 3. A Comparative Review of Human Ability Theory: Context, Structure, and Development 4. Critical Thinking 5. Improvisation 6. Improvisation and Curriculum Reform 7. Adult Education 8. Music and Early Childhood Education 9. Systematic Research in Studio Instruction in Music 10. Philosophical Issues in Curriculum 11. Educating Musically 12. Distance Learning and Collaboration in Music Education SECTION THREE: MUSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING Introduction: Issues in Perception, Cognition, and Development 1. Learning Theories as Roots of Current Musical Practice and Research 2. Systematic Instruction 3. Behavioural Research on Direct Music Instruction 4. Self-Regulation of Musical Learning: A Social Cognitive Perspective 5. Motivation and Achievement 6. Developmental Characteristics of Music Learners 7. Creative Research in Music, Visual Arts, Theater, and Dance 8. Computer-based Technology and Music Teaching and Learning SECTION FOUR: MUSICAL COGNITION 1. The Neurobiology of Music Cognition and Learning 2. Cognitive Constraints on Music Listening 3. The Development of Musical Abilities 4. Making Music and Making Sense of Music: Expressive Performance and Communication 5. Taking an Acquired Skills Perspective on Music Performance SECTION FIVE: SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXTS 1. The Sociology of Education and Connections to Music Education Research 2. Sociology of Music 3. Social Psychology and Music Education 4. Music, Culture, Curriculum and Instruction 5. Feminism, Feminist Research and Gender Research in Music Education 6. The Social Construction of Music Teacher Identity in Undergraduate Music Education Majors 7. Transforming Research in Music Education History 8. Music Transmission and Learning: A Conspectus of Ethnographic Research in Ethnomusicology and Music Education 9. Community Music: Toward an International Overview SECTION SIX: TEACHER EDUCATION Introduction: Fuzzy Teacher Education 1. Reform-minded Music Teachers: A More Comprehensive Image of Teaching for Music Teacher Education 2. Teaching as a Profession: Two Variations on a Theme 3. Changing Concepts of Teacher Education 4. Strengthening the Teaching of Music Educators in Higher Education 5. Research by Teachers on Teacher Education 6. Research in Music Student Teaching 7. Professional Development SECTION SEVEN: MUSIC EDUCATION CONNECTIONS Introduction: The Growing Impact of Partnerships: A Reason for Research 1. Policy Issues Connecting Music Education and Arts Education 2. The Evaluation of Arts Partnerships and Learning Through the Arts 3. The 'Use and Abuse' of Arts Advocacy and its Consequences for Music Education 4. Research in Visual Arts Education: Implications for Music Education 5. A Review of Research in Theater, Dance, and Other Performing Arts Education: Implications for Music SECTION EIGHT: NEUROSCIENCE, MEDICINE, AND MUSIC 1. Music and Neuroscience 2. Performing arts Medicine 3. Musicians' Health MIRIAM HENOCH, AND JOHN HIPPLE SECTION NINE: INSTRUMENTAL OUTCOMES 1. Nonmusical Outcomes of Music Education: Historical Considerations 2. Teaching Other Subjects Through Music 3. Research: A Foundation for Arts Education Advocacy SECTION TEN: RESEARCH DESIGN, CRITICISM, AND ASSESSMENT IN MUSIC EDUCATION 1. Philosophical Perspectives on Research 2. Maintaining Quality in Research and Reporting 3. Trends in Data Acquisition and Knowledge Development 4. Assessment's Potential in Music Education 5. Contemporary Issues in Qualitative Research and Music Education

This article is based on a speech that Barnes presented at a meeting of the Collegiate Roundtable at the American String Teachers Association 2019 National Conference in Albuquerque, New Mexico.

Ideal for use in undergraduate string methods, string techniques, and instrumental string pedagogy courses, Strategies for Teaching Strings provides readers with all the information and skills necessary to teach string instruments in schools and to develop a successful school-based orchestral program. Based on national standards for successful string and orchestra teaching, the text begins by introducing the string instrument family and providing an overview of the development of the school orchestra program. Subsequent chapters-divided into three levels of string competency corresponding to elementary, middle, and secondary school skills-cover performance goals and objectives, strategies for teaching technical and performance skills, and solutions to common problems for each ability level. Rehearsal planning and preparation, rehearsal techniques, strategies for teaching improvisation, student recruitment and retention, and choosing literature for the school orchestra are also covered. The text is enhanced by line drawings and photographs that demonstrate correct playing techniques and fingering positions. An appendix includes special pedagogical approaches, lists of resources for string teachers, a listing of professional string associations, and a full listing of the Standards for Successful School String/Orchestra Teaching (published by the American String Teachers Association with the National School Orchestra Association). Offering more extensive and up-to-date coverage than other texts, Strategies for Teaching Strings is an essential all-purpose guide for those planning to enter the string teaching profession.

After reviewing a small body of literature on the assessment practices of American orchestra directors, this chapter quickly shifts attention to conducting original research. It describes a descriptive survey study with American String Teachers Association (ASTA) members (N = 416) that found performance-based assessments were the most frequently used form of formal assessment to evaluate technique, musicianship skills, creative musicianship, and ensemble skills. Music literacy was nearly equally split between performance-based and written assessments, while evaluation of music and musical performances and historical and cultural elements tended toward written assessments and verbal feedback. Creative musicianship and historical/cultural elements were the top two nonassessed areas, but were still assessed by the vast majority of teachers. Interviews with five string teachers demonstrate that the research participants emphasized performing/playing assessments, focused on student learning/improvement, acknowledged the role of the school district/administration and benefited from its support, and recognized the value in aligning assessment to standards/curriculum.

What would an ideal music education look like? All too often in education research and practice, our vision of how music education might be is constrained by how it is; by the practicalities of funding, teacher expertise, student motivation and curriculum status. Several of the authors in this issue ask us to forget those concerns momentarily, and consider what Dawn Bennett calls a ‘musotopia’ – the ideal that music education might aim for in engaging students with music and preparing them for lifelong involvement. Bennett's interest lies with students in higher education, whose ‘musotopia’ involves adequate preparation for a musical career, rather than the sole focus on instrumental excellence which has characterised past conservatoire models of teaching. Whilst this might be thought of as idealistic, it contains a strong element of realism, with Bennett asking conservatoire tutors to address the diverse skills needed by the next generation of musicians, rather than focusing solely on instrumental excellence.