Rin Ushiyama, Aum Shinrikyō and Religious Terrorism in Japanese Collective Memory

Aum Shinrikyō's sarin attack on the Tokyo subway in March 1995 left an indelible mark on Japanese society. This book is the first comprehensive study of the competing memories of Aum Shinrikyō's religious terrorism. Developing a sociological framework for how uneven distributions of power and resources shape commemorative processes, this book explores how the Aum Affair developed as a ‘cultural trauma’ in Japanese collective memory following the Tokyo attack. The book shows how numerous stakeholders, including the state, the mass media, public intellectuals, victims, and perpetrators offered competing narratives about the causes and consequences of Aum's violence. Combining multiple methods including media content analysis, participant observation, and original interviews with victims and ex-members, this book reveals various flashpoints of contention such as the state regulation of religion, ‘brainwashing’ and ‘mind control’ controversies, and the morality of capital punishment. It shows that although cultural trauma construction requires the use of moral binaries such as ‘good vs. evil’ and ‘sacred vs. profane’, the entrenchment of such binary codes in commemorative processes can ultimately hinder social repair and reconciliation.

Memory-Work

This chapter details the months leading up to the March 1995 Tokyo sarin subway attack and the social responses to the attack in the immediate aftermath. This chapter reconstructs the societal responses to the Aum Affair, mainly focusing on mass media and state reactions in public discourse. It shows that the mass media and the government alike quickly converged on the narrative of an evil ‘brainwashing cult’ plotting to take over Japan by force. As the Aum Affair quickly became a media spectacle inundating the news every day, the narrative of Aum as a ‘brainwashing cult’ became the predominant narrative frame through which Aum Affair was debated. As ordinary members placed the blame on the senior leadership, Asahara became a demonic figure with no redeeming qualities, a symbol of ‘sacred evil’ diametrically opposed to Japan's positive civil values. The Aum Affair prompted critical examinations about the causes of Aum's growth, which commentators attributed to various causes including anomie, the education system, popular culture, and transnational religious developments.

A case study in the sociology of ideas, this article refines the theory of 'discursive opportunities' to examine how intellectual claims cross national and linguistic boundaries to achieve public prominence despite lacking academic credibility. Theories of 'brainwashing' and 'mind control' originally began in the United States in the 1960s as a response to the growth of new religious movements. Decades later in Japan, claims that so-called 'cults' 'brainwashed' or 'mind controlled' their followers became prominent after March 1995, when new religion Aum Shinrikyō gassed the Tokyo subway using sarin, killing thirteen. Since then, brainwashing/mind control have both remained central in public discourse surrounding the 'Aum Affair' despite their disputed status within academic discourse. This article advances two arguments. Firstly, the transnational diffusion of brainwashing/mind control from the US to Japan occurred as a direct result of the 1995 Tokyo sarin attack, which acted as a 'discursive opportunity' for activists to successfully disseminate the theories in public debate. Secondly, brainwashing/mind control became successful in Japanese public discourse primarily for their normative content, as the theories identified 'brainwashing/mind controlling cults' as evil, violent and profane threats to civil society.

ISJ Editorial

Memory is rarely considered an essential tool for sociological theorizing. Yet an understanding of memory as integral to the core of social life—indeed as the very tissue that binds collectivities together—has been inscribed in the sociological tradition from the beginning. Challenging the assumption that memory is a special interest—a sub-subfield within cultural sociology—this chapter argues for moving the concept of “collective memory” from the periphery of sociological theorizing to its core. In particular, current debates and conversations in the collective memory literature can advance two major projects in contemporary theory: (1) the effort to theorize the epoch in which we live, be it—for instance—“late,” “post,” “reflexive,” or “liquid” modern, and (2) the effort to define the meaning of “culture” and specify its role in larger social processes, a project that has simultaneously captivated and perplexed sociologists since the “cultural turn.” Accordingly, this chapter briefly traces the history of the “collective memory” concept and its revival in the 1980s, then draws from the field’s vibrant debates to reveal how the memory literature addresses broader theoretical questions.

“In Honorable Remembrance to All Generations”: Commemoration and the Making of Mormon Battalion Memory, 1921–2021

The article is devoted to considering the peculiarities of trauma discourse in the context of dynamics and transformations of individual and collective memory based on the material of the novel by the modern American writer J. S. Foer “Extremely Loud and Incredibly Close”. Sociocultural dynamics of the first quarter of the 21st century causes significant changes in the spheres of collective imagination and memory, which finds its expression in the literary discourse, one of the significant types of which is currently the discourse of trauma. In turn, the category of trauma acquires universal status in modern humanitarianism. This determines the relevance of the research topic. The purpose of the article is to consider the discursive specificity of J. S. Foer’s novel «Extremely Loud and Incredibly Close» in the context of trauma, individual and collective memory. The subject of consideration is the peculiarities of the representation of trauma in the context of the transformation of memory in the novel by J. S. Foer. The novelty of the study consists in the attempt to distinguish the discourse of trauma related to the peculiarities of the narrator’s vision of reality and the socio-cultural determinations of trauma that affect the entire society, that is, to isolate the universal discourse of social trauma in the novel compared to individual trauma. The task of the research: to analyse the specific features of the discourse of trauma in J. S. Foer’s novel; find out the correlation between trauma discourse and transformations of individual and collective memory; to justify the universal nature of the trauma discourse in the novel. Historical-cultural, hermeneutic and discursive methods were used in the research process. The discourse of trauma in the novel acquires universal features and concerns all the narrators of the novel, who form its plot. The visual component that forms the visual-symbolic narrative of the novel actualizes the synesthetic perception of the trauma and its totality, spread not only to the family of the main character, but also to the entire society. At the same time, the graphic and visual experiments and findings of the author allow us to interpret the text as a complex postmodern and metamodern whole. The trauma discourse in the novel captures the transformations of individual and collective memory, which are aimed at restoring the functionality of the existence of people and communities on both the cognitive and emotional-affective levels. The discourse of trauma acquires features of totality, while remaining rational and avoiding signs of self-obsession, which enables catharsis as life after and with trauma. The symbolic nature of the processes taking place in the collective consciousness and imagination represents itself through the transformations of discourse, which record the transformations of memory. Prospects for further research are outlined by the possibility of considering the discourse of trauma in a wider cultural, linguistic and sociological context.

Japan presents a useful case for studying new religious movements and their development of public relations and growth strategies, not only because there are large numbers of new religious movements in Japan, but also for the presence of controversial movements such as Aum and the Unification Church. The strategies employed in recruitment and fund-raising have become increasingly important for such movements in Japan-as well as for research on these movements-in the wake of the "Aum Affair." This article will focus on the strategy employed by the Unification Church, which is broadly perceived as a social problem. KEYWORDS: cult controversy-new religion-recruitment-Unification Church-fund-raising (ProQuest: ... denotes formulae omitted.) Ever since Aum Shinrikyo members carried out the sarin gas attack in 1995, the "cult controversy" has been considered a major social problem in Japan. The word "cult," used by Margaret Singer when she referred to Aum as a "doomsday cult" in the Kyodo News Service report of 24 March 1995, fed public anxiety. Aum believers, especially those convicted of the crime of mass murder, were considered by the public to be under the "mind control" of the group's founder, Asahara Shoko. Various professionals have diagnosed pathological religious conversion in cults, which has given authorization for individuals with cult problems to be treated with medical care as well as legal remedies (Nishida 1995). As for Aum, the acts of violence were dealt with by judiciary authorities as self-centered organized crimes, even though its members were following the orders of the founder under the intense pressure of religious dogma. Moreover, psychiatrists and clinical psychotherapists who participated in cult criticism began withdrawing from their attempts to rescue members when they learned that approximately fifteen hundred members still remained affiliated with Aum (later renamed "Aleph") and still believed in the founder's teachings and practices (Koanchosacho 2008). Contrary to the development process of anti-cult movements formulated by Shupe and Bromley (1994), for the Japanese anti-cult movements the Aum incidents were not sufficient to allow for its "professionalization," that is, the movement must still rely on "nonprofessional" volunteers such as pastors and lawyers. Also, most Japanese did not regard cult members as "patients" to be diagnosed and treated psychiatrically, and easily forgot and overlooked the malfunctions of New Age and cult movements. Recently, the "cult problem" has been fading from view as a topic in the news. The anti-cult movements, however, have been continuing their regular activities such as reporting on cult issues, counseling, and working to fix problems. Among those problem cases, the Unification Church (Holy Spirit Association for the Unification of World Christianity; hereafter "uc") in Japan must be noted because this religion has persistently provoked cult controversy, and critics of this religion have succeeded in suggesting a new perspective on the "religious freedom" of the proselytized, that is, the right to not believe in a religion is just as much as part of the "freedom of religion" as the right of a religious group to conduct mission activities. In Japan, the liability of the uc with regard to former members and private citizens has been the center of many court cases. Its proselytizing has been found to be illegal, and its fund-raising activities (including the sales of spiritual goods) ruled fraudulent. Yet they continue these illegal missionary activities and fund-raising. Since attention to the cult issue was monopolized by the Aum affair in the 1990s, the uc's missionary and fund-raising work, which has actually been conducted for more than fifty years, did not receive proper attention from the media, police authorities, and academics. The matter of "conversion" has been discussed from the perspective of the sociology of religion, and this organization has been a continuous subject of investigation in connection with this issue. …

This paper examines the folk ritual of Theyyam in Kerala as a site of collective trauma, cultural memory, and social protest. Drawing from interdisciplinary perspectives—including anthropology, psychoanalysis, trauma studies, and postcolonial theory—this study argues that Theyyam functions as a cathartic and therapeutic medium for historically marginalized lower-caste communities in Kerala. The performance of Theyyam not only reenacts past injustices but also allows for a temporary inversion of social hierarchy, thereby enabling the oppressed to embody divine agency. This study explores how the ritual serves as a socio-political critique, a site of communal healing, and a mechanism for intergenerational trauma processing. By integrating insights from Cathy Caruth’s trauma theory, Johan Galtung’s structural violence framework, and Pierre Bourdieu’s concept of social capital, this paper situates Theyyam within the broader discourse of cultural resistance and resilience.

Weblogs as Personal Narratives

The symbolic value of targets is what differentiates terrorism from other forms of extreme violence. Terrorism is designed to inflict deep psychological wounds on an enemy rather than demolish its material ability to fight. The September 11, 2001 attacks, for example, demonstrated the power of symbolism. The World Trade Center was targeted by Al Qaeda because the Twin Towers epitomized Western civilization, U.S. imperialism, financial success, modernity, and freedom. The symbolic character of terrorism is the focus of this textbook. A comprehensive analysis, it incorporates descriptions, definitions, case studies, and theories. Each chapter focuses on a specific dimension of symbolism in terrorism and explains the contexts and processes that involve the main actors as well as the symbolism of both the purposes and targets of terrorism. Also discussed are new religious movements, which represent another important aspect of terrorism, such as Aum Shinrikyo, the Japanese cult that used sarin gas in the Tokyo subway in 1995. Over forty areas of symbolism are covered throughout the chapters, including physical and non-physical symbolism, linguistic symbolism, the social construction of reality, rituals, myths, performative violence, iconoclasm, brand management, logos, semiotics, new media, and the global village. This allows for an in-depth examination of many issues, such as anti-globalization, honor killing, religious terrorism, suicide terrorism, martyrdom, weapons, female terrorism, public communication, visual motifs, and cyberspace. Main concepts are clearly defined, and followed by theory illustrated by international case studies. Chapter summaries, key points, review questions, research and practice suggestions are recurring components as well. This groundbreaking text encompasses all major aspects of symbolism in terrorism and will be an essential resource for anyone studying terrorism.

Though the horrific images of the aerial assaults on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on September 11, 2001 were shocking, the headlines of American newspapers on September 12 contained another surprise: how quickly the rhetoric of warfare entered into public consciousness. Yet even though it seemed palpably to be an act of war, it was not clear what kind of war it was. The instant comparisons to Pearl Harbor seemed forced. The Japanese attack that signaled America's entry into World War II was, after all, the military act of a sovereign state. Religious activists are puzzling anomalies in the secular world. Most religious people and their organizations are either firmly supportive of the secular state or quiescently uninterested in it. The September 11 attack and many other recent acts of religious terrorism are skirmishes in what their perpetrators conceive to be a global war.

Social movement scholarship has increasingly shown how continuous mobilization depends on collective memory construction. This article sets out to study this formative activity in a changing media landscape. It asks how activists navigate the temporal nexus of collective memory mediation. The empirical focus is on Brazil’s Landless Rural Workers’ Movement (MST), a well-established organization that since the early 1980s has communicated its collective memories on several media platforms. This article also demonstrates, through a corpus analysis of MST’s internal newspaper, Jornal Sem Terra (1984–2014), and its Facebook page (2014–2019), how collective memories of rural violence serve various functions in these different media. The empirical study verifies the formative implication of rural violence for Brazil’s landless movement, but also unveils notable differences between the newspaper and Facebook in this regard. Whereas Jornal Sem Terra employed a horizontal collective memory construction through contemporary documentation of ongoing and upcoming events, the Facebook posts primarily engaged in the vertical extraction of already established memories. In other words, the print media produced a narrative around collective memories of rural violence, and these memories were re-produced through digital media platforms. These empirical findings implicate that renewed methodologies are needed in future studies of social movements.

This article aims to discuss the remembering phenomenon of the seven words of the Jakarta Charter. Even though it happened in early Indonesia independent era, the rejection of deleting the seven words of Jakarta Charter still exists until now. The seven words abolition of the Jakarta Charter became myths and rites that used by Islamic fundamentalist groups to bring back past memories in Indonesia today. In the process, it became a collective or social memory among Muslim Fundamentalist group, and it gives great energy, and also dreaming, to the fundamentalist Islamic groups to struggle to remake Indonesia as Islamic State. In Indonesian history, it is a big problem because of two reasons. Indonesia is not Islamic state. Beside that this group also is not only using constitutional ways, but also unconstitutional ways, such rebellion, religious terror, and hijacking. Therefore we need to reshape and reconfigure the memory of deleting the seven words of the Jakarta Charter.