Reviving rural “dead capital” through transferable development rights: A spatial justice analysis of online citizen–government interactions in China

Rapid urbanization in developing countries has widened the gap between urban and rural development, due to inefficient land markets and weak institutional systems in rural areas. China’s innovative “Urban–rural Construction Land Linkage” policy was designed to address this imbalance by encouraging rural land consolidation and creating a transferable development rights mechanism. While this approach has shown potential in improving the utilization efficiency of existing construction land and continuously supplying urban development space, concerns remain about its actual benefits to villagers and rural development, with some arguing it disrupts traditional livelihoods and favors government interests over rural needs. To respond to this debate, this study investigates two core questions: first, does China’s transferable land development rights (TDR) program genuinely improve rural welfare as intended; second, why does the theoretically preferred self-organized governance model sometimes fail in practice? To address these research questions, this paper develops a new analytical framework combining the IAD framework of Ostrom with the hierarchical institutional framework of Williamson to examine three implementation approaches in China’s TDR implementation: government-dominated, market-invested, and self-organized models. Based on case studies, surveys, and interviews across multiple regions, this study reveals distinct strengths and weaknesses in each approach in improving villagers’ lives. Government-dominated projects demonstrate strong resource mobilization but limited community participation. Market-based models show efficiency gains but often compromise equity. While self-organized initiatives promise greater local empowerment, they frequently face practical challenges including limited management capacity and institutional barriers. Furthermore, this study identifies the preconditional institutional environment necessary for successful self-organized implementation, including clear land property rights, financial support, and technical assistance. These findings advance global understanding of how to combine efficiency with fair outcomes for all stakeholders in land governance, which is particularly relevant for developing countries seeking to manage urban expansion while protecting rural interests.

To enhance the utilization efficiency of existing construction land and promote integrated urban–rural development, China’s government has implemented the “Linkage” Policy, which has commodified land development rights and reallocated urban–rural development potential. In recent years, a growing number of studies have examined the diversified governance structures of “Linkage” projects, which has deepened our understanding of China’s project-based rural land governance. However, most studies have focused primarily on governance performance while neglecting the comparative advantages of different governance structures in improving process efficiency, particularly within the same local institutional environment. To fill this gap, this study first conceptualizes the transactions and sub-transactions in the Transfer of Development Rights (TDR) and then systematically assesses the associated organizational risks. Drawing on Transaction Cost Theory, this paper analyzes how governance diversity mitigates risks and optimizes efficiency. Empirically, this research employs a comparative case study approach, examining three representative governance modes using data triangulation to ensure robust findings. Finally, the theoretical and empirical analyses yield three key findings regarding China’s TDR system: First, given the inherent complexity and substantial financial investment required, the efficient implementation of China’s rural land development projects necessitates leveraging complementary stakeholder strengths. Second, transaction risks constitute the primary source of transaction costs and the central concern of all governance structures. Third, beyond governance structure selection, local institutional innovations and collective action mechanisms significantly enhance governance efficiency.

This paper reviews different approaches to using transferable development rights (TDRs) as a way to preserve rural lands in the face of development pressure. One TDR program is examined in detail, that of Calvert County, Maryland, which has had an active TDR market since the mid-1980s. This program uses TDRs as a key policy tool for achieving a total amount of preserved acreage in the county, and for providing incentives for preservation in some areas and development in others. The paper examines both the early difficulties in developing participation in the program, and the events that lead eventually to an active TDR market. It assesses the workings of the market including factors that influence the demand and supply of TDRs, the movement of prices over time, and the location of preserved areas and of additional developed areas. The study found that the program is achieving many of the county's land preservation goals because of the high level of activity in the TDR market. However, most of the additional density is being channeled into rural areas with underlying low-density zoning.

With the continuous urbanization, China is facing a dilemma of achieving two conflicting targets in land governance, i.e., the continuous supply of urban construction land to support urbanization and the preservation of cultivated land for food security. Under China’s dual land system, the implementation of the “Linkage between Urban-land Taking and Rural-land Giving” (Linkage) policy is of great significance in promoting more inclusive urbanization by commodifying the land development right and connecting urban and rural land markets. In the specific land property right system and changing land governance of China, this policy appears to provide an opportunity for stakeholders other than the state to compete for the value from the transfer of development rights (TDR) and triggers the emergence of diversified approaches in organizing land projects in rural China. Based on the theoretical perspective of New Institutional Economics and empirical evidence from Zhejiang Province, Hubei Province, and Sichuan Province, this paper conducts a comparative institutional analysis for China’s TDR practice and argues that the diversified operational approaches in China’s practice have aligned various interests of the stakeholders through flexible participation methods and elaborate reallocation of land property rights, in order to fit various institutional environments and material conditions

This paper charts the critical role of ‘air rights’ in the transformation of Nalasopara in Vasai Virar—a peri-urban area in the north-western periphery of the Mumbai Metropolitan Region—from a ‘dormitory town’ to a municipal corporation in 2009. I suggest that state policy framed around the rhetoric of ‘housing for the poor’ and a profits-oriented private-enterprise-driven housing construction sector combined to transform globally deployed urban planning tools and protocols—floor area ratio (FAR) and transferable development rights (TDR)—into a local narrative in Mumbai’s periphery. I focus on a short-lived and recently aborted rental housing scheme and outline the technologies undergirding the commodification of built-space. The unprecedented demand for cheap housing produces both a market for unauthorised construction and an overheated trade in speculative real estate which spawns a ‘virtual’—and vertical—built-space that is a characteristic feature of the rapidly developing peripheries of Asian cities. I propose that the legal and political processes that fuel Vasai Virar’s ‘spectral’ housing commoditises the right to build vertically and produces, in its wake, airscapes—a distinctive urban imaginary. The impressive trade in TDR, that is, the right to build vertically, and the state’s continued subsidies for ‘affordable urban housing’ projects combine to produce dubious schemes in Vasai Virar that restructure the value of land and generate a new market topography built on the ‘primitive accumulation’ and trade in air rights.

Modelling urban growth under contemporary China's transferable development rights programme: A case study from Ezhou, China

ABSTRACTThe slow movement has recently offered an alternative approach to sustainable tourism development, and this study aims to investigate the potential of Cittaslow philosophy and practices for enhancing local community involvement and empowerment in the tourism sector through which sustainable tourism is better implemented. Qualitative research was conducted on the case of Goolwa in South Australia, the first non-European Cittaslow. The results reveal that not only did Cittaslow accreditation and its accompanying practices encourage local community participation in decision-making processes, but also revitalised the locality of Goolwa through promoting local specialities and products, in particular food and wine. A stronger and more effective collaboration among local communities, businesses and residents after the Cittaslow accreditation was noted in the context of psychological and social aspects of local community empowerment, especially for developing and managing tourism. This paper further discusses the implications of Cittaslow through which local community empowerment and sustainability in tourism can be more achievable.

Rural development policy and community data needs in Scotland

The following research article presents an innovative initiative that integrates meteorological data on the website of the emblematic archaeological site of Malqui-Machay, located in Ecuador. This site, discovered through a meticulous and rigorous ethnohistorical study that included an exhaustive review of archives, libraries and field work both nationally and internationally, represents an invaluable cultural and archaeological heritage for the country. Furthermore, it has been a catalyst for the empowerment and active participation of local Quichua-speaking communities in the reclamation and celebration of this ancestral legacy. The main objective of incorporating meteorological data on the website is to encourage and strengthen conservation and sustainable management actions of this archaeological site of historical relevance. Likewise, it seeks to provide updated climate information in real time, providing visitors and the general public with a valuable environmental context that enriches their educational and cultural experience when exploring this emblematic place. The methodology used in the development of this initiative included an exhaustive review of the existing literature, in order to understand the current state and best practices in the integration of meteorological data in web environments related to archaeological projects. The analysis of the results obtained revealed a direct correlation between the popularity of climate-related web pages and the frequency of access to real-time meteorological data by users. Finally, the positive impact of this initiative in the empowerment of local communities and the promotion of sustainable tourism in the region, strengthening the ties between the population and their ancestral legacy

The purpose of this examination is to prospect the underlying capacity of diverse geographic information systems in sustainable rural tourism and local community empowerment in South Africa and, extensively, Africa. Hence, corresponds with diverse rural areas elsewhere globally, utilizing the case of Musina Municipality in Limpopo Province, South Africa. The case study appropriates narrative literature review (with existing documents reviews), interviews, and focuses group discussion in studying African and comprehensive agricultural, environmental, and tourism reservoirs management situations. It links community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) and geographic information systems to sustainable tourism implications in Musina Municipality. Numerous agricultural communities in Southern Africa and Africa comprehensively reside in low-income districts; Musina Municipality is no different. Such localities are plentiful in natural biodiversity and tourism host provinces. Geographic information systems, sustainable tourism, agriculture (AG), and community-based natural resource management can generate a medley of local community development schemes within such environs.

This study is to create an approach between local development and tourism in order to assess whether or not tourism may be a strategy in local community empowerment. The objective of this research is to build an approach between local development and tourism. In the offered text, evolution, conceptualization, and components are discussed. In this study, we use a qualitative approach and combine it with a descriptive methodology. The data used in this study originated from a variety of different literatures that were pertinent to this investigation. The findings that were gathered indicate that there are a variety of perspectives held by members of the community who are seen as crucial participants in the process. In this research, it is also emphasized that tourism cannot be the sole source of revenue; rather, it should be seen as an activity that contributes to the overall improvement of the community's quality of life. neighboring areas with an emphasis on fostering community empowerment within those communities.

Introduction Sustainable rural development requires strengthening farmers’ capacities and leveraging Cyber Extension to address productivity stagnation, the digital divide, and limited access to information in support of the self-reliance of rice farmers. This study aims to analyze the role of capacity strengthening of rice farmers through the utilization of Cyber Extension in promoting rural community empowerment in Konda Subdistrict. Methods The study population comprised lowland rice farmers in Konda Subdistrict. The sample was selected using proportional random sampling. The research variables consisted of three components: farmers’ capacity, utilization of Cyber Extension, and community empowerment. Data and information were described and interpreted through a logical analytical framework using both descriptive and inferential statistics within a structured analytical approach. Descriptive analysis employed class interval formulas, while inferential analysis referred to Structural Equation Modeling–Partial Least Squares (SEM-PLS), implemented using SmartPLS 3.0. Results Rural community empowerment in the lowland rice production centers of Konda Subdistrict is strongly influenced by farmers’ capacity levels and the utilization of Cyber Extension as a digital extension instrument. Farmers’ capacity was found to range from moderate to good; however, limitations persist in digital literacy and access to information technology. Structural relationship analysis revealed that farmers’ capacity has a significant effect on the level of Cyber Extension utilization. Moreover, farmers’ capacity exerts both a direct effect on rural community empowerment and an indirect effect mediated through Cyber Extension. These findings indicate that Cyber Extension functions as a mediating variable in the relationship between farmers’ capacity and rural community empowerment. Discussion The findings affirm that Cyber Extension serves as a digital learning space that connects farmers to knowledge sources and extension services, while simultaneously strengthening interaction, learning processes, and the quality of decision-making in lowland rice farming management. The mediating role of Cyber Extension suggests that strengthening farmers’ capacity does not automatically translate into empowerment without the support of an adaptive and inclusive digital extension system. Conceptually, these results enrich the rural community empowerment literature by proposing a model that positions Cyber Extension as a mechanism for transforming individual capacity into collective empowerment, particularly in regions characterized by gaps in digital literacy.

This systematic literature review (SRL) examines the impact of English educational tourism (EET) on the growth of local Small-Medium Enterprises (SMEs). Through a comprehensive search of academic databases and systematic assessment of study quality, a total of 49 studies were selected for inclusion. The studies varied in design, location, and intervention, but all focused on the relationship between English educational tourism and the growth of local SMEs. This SLR focuses on the typology of SMEs in EET, its impact on rural economy and local community empowerment, and SMEs’ challenges in growing their businesses. The findings suggest that English educational tourism can have a positive impact on local SMEs and rural communities, including increased revenue, community empowerment, cultural preservation, and poverty reduction. However, it is crucial to ensure that the benefits of EET are distributed fairly and that local communities are actively involved in the decision-making process to maximize positive impacts and mitigate potential negative impacts. Overall, the results suggest that English educational tourism can be a promising strategy for promoting the growth of local economy, but more research is needed to fully understand the conditions under which this impact is most effective.

Recent studies reported that the implementation of local budgeting in the context of fiscal decentralization policy had no significant contribution in increasing rural community welfare. This study therefore evaluated the local budgeting policy implemented in Indonesia through Village Fund (VF) policy as well as examining the mediating role of local community empowerment. This investigation used crossectional data from 399 respondents from villages in Indonesia. The measures used in this study involved villagers' perception about policy and implementation of village fund, the success of rural welfare and local community empowerment. PLS-SEM was used to test the hyphoteses. The result of this study evidences that perceived of VF usage measured by perceived infrastructure development and perceived basic social services, except for perceived VF usage in rural economic development, have less significant impact on rural community welfare. Moreover, perceived involvement of community empowerment has minimum contribution on perceived rural community welfare. This study provides an understanding of paradox existing in the perceived role of local community empowerment in mediating the effect of local finance budgeting on rural welfare which is still rarely studied particularly in developing countries like Indonesia.

The real meaning of empowerment of rural communities can be understood as a process of increasing the capacity utilization of the autonomy of every individuals for utilizing local resources in a productive and creative way in the rural community.Every community development efforts based on local resources need to be oriented to favor the interests of poverty alleviation in various typologies of rural areas.The empowerment of rural communities which are pro poor and sustainable requires systematic planning in order to avoid the effects of culture shock.This study aims to formulate management strategiesof community empowerment based on local resources.This study showed that strategic management empowerment of rural communities have strong links with policy makers in regulating the ability of the balance principle of natural resources and human resources synergistically.Culture shock can be reduced in a planned manner through social adjustments between the problems and the real needs of the poor in the rural development program goals and objectives.Evaluation and monitoring objective and are required to determine the achievement of goals and predict the chances of a culture shock as early as possible.The partnership and mutual trust among various parties have contributed to the empowerment pro-poor.Beside economic improvement, it can be showed that social cohesiveness can be better and culture shocks are able to be reduced.Pro poor development activities based on local resources must be integrated and minimizing cultural schock.Nevertheless, the implementation of strategic management require systematic steps to all aspects and accommodate social, cultural, political and technological interests.