Revisiting quantitative water-sharing frameworks in transboundary river treaties: towards sustainable water management in south Asia

The chapter introduces the book that highlights various challenges and opportunities for water management and cooperation in South Asia. Taking into consideration the increasing urbanization and development in the region and related pressure on water resources, the various chapters investigate water conflictual and cooperative attitudes and gestures between countries and regions, analyse management trade-offs between nature, agriculture and urban uses, and look into water sustainable management and related policies. The chapter highlights the increasing importance of South Asia, alerts for the constraining impacts of water scarcity, and indicates challenges for improved sustainable water management. The chapter concludes with synopses of each part of the book and of the chapters that compose them.

South Asia’s Indus and Ganges-Brahmaputra river basins, vital for over 1.9 billion people across India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Bhutan, are flashpoints for hydropolitical conflicts driven by geopolitical tensions, competing water demands, and climate change. India’s 2025 suspension of the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) amid the Kashmir dispute has disrupted data-sharing and arbitration, escalating India-Pakistan tensions. Concurrently, India-Bangladesh disputes persist over the Ganges Water Sharing Treaty’s 2026 expiration, the unresolved Teesta River issue, and China’s upstream Brahmaputra damming. Secondary data from policy documents, diplomatic records (2015–2025), hydrological reports, and academic literature indicate that 68% of stakeholders support regional cooperation, yet mistrust and India’s upstream dominance hinder progress. Climate change, with glacial melt and erratic monsoons, exacerbates water insecurity. This study advocates for neutral mediation, data transparency, and climate-resilient governance, with targeted peacebuilding strategies for India-Pakistan and India-Bangladesh, to transform conflicts into cooperative opportunities. Without urgent diplomatic efforts, these disputes pose a threat to regional stability. This study is primarily based on a thematic analysis approach and incorporates discourse where relevant. Drawing on scholarly insights, principal findings reveal the potential of environmental peacebuilding, joint data sharing, and regional platforms to transform water conflicts into opportunities for collaboration.

Because could be a major source of future conflicts among states (what some have called the coming of the water wars), it is extremely important that steps be taken to resolve these issues and ensure greater access to water. Such efforts are especially needed in South Asia. The Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) is an agreement between India and Pakistan to share the waters of the Indus river system that the two countries signed in 1960. The IWT is also one of the few such international agreements on the sharing of river waters that has been a success, despite the ongoing rivalry between India and Pakistan. This paper lays out a role for U.S. policy to help resolve the current dispute between India and Pakistan over the IWT, and explains how it can be used to help achieve larger and broader U.S. policy goals. The lack of sufficient mutual trust among the main partners to the treaty requires the intervention of a third party that is not perceived as biased and yet can be an effective mediator. The paper argues that this policy of intervention is in alignment with U.S. interests and will be a step toward meeting the U.S. goal of stability in this volatile region.

Blood, Water, and the Indus Waters Treaty

Public management in South Asia has been influenced by the colonial past which has resulted in the domination of administrative systems by the bureaucrats. Bureaucracies remained firmly entrenched as powerful groups and performed both administrative and political functions. India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka represent cases with similar backgrounds which opted for different political and economic systems after achieving independence. Consequently, a number of issues have emerged in public management in South Asia. These include debureaucratization of the policy process, complex relationship between specialists and generalists, integration of administrative structures, reconciliation of merit and equity, choice between professional and political patronage, revitalization of management, bridging the ever widening gap between the citizens and administrators, and the establishment of a sound ethical base of administration. The success of South Asian governments in dealing with these issues will determine, to a considerable extent, the dimensions and directions of change. While some of the issues will have to be addressed in the natural course of development, others will require a substantial degree of commitment from the governments as well as the societies.

Scholars and policymakers have recognized that collaborating on transboundary water resources is a significant way to promote peace and stability in conflict-prone areas. The Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) of 1960 between India and Pakistan remains one of the few enduring agreements on water management between the two countries. It has persisted through numerous wars and periods of political hostility. However, the treaty’s resilience and relevance are increasingly challenged by growing water shortages, changing weather patterns, and varying development plans. Besides these challenges, the militarization of Pakistan’s Indus Basin region also exemplifies significant resource challenges in South Asia. This paper examines the IWT both as a growing case of militarization in Pakistan’s Indus Basin Region and as a potential source of the broader environmental peacebuilding framework. Using a qualitative and conceptualization of the issue based on an environmental peacebuilding framework, the paper concludes that strengthening the IWT requires collaborative environmental peacebuilding strategies to transform the Indus Basin from a zone of militarization into a foundation for sustainable water peace and regional water security stability in South Asia.

South Asia is home to some of the world’s most critical transboundary river systems—the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra—which are vital for the region’s agriculture-dependent economies and rapidly growing populations. However, water sharing in this region remains deeply contested, often constrained by historical grievances, political mistrust, and fragmented bilateral relations. This paper explores the complex interlinkages between transboundary water management, regional security, and geopolitical rivalry in South Asia, with a focus on India’s central role and the increasing influence of China. Water security has emerged as a sensitive and strategic concern, with states prioritising national development and sovereignty over regional cooperation. Existing water sharing treaties—such as the Indus Waters Treaty (1960) and the Ganges Treaty (1996)—are examined in terms of effectiveness, trust deficit, and asymmetry in power perceptions. India, often seen as a “big brother” with hegemonic intent, is viewed with suspicion by its neighbours, further complicating water diplomacy. The paper argues that the growing Chinese presence, particularly via the Belt and Road Initiative and upstream control of major rivers, is altering regional equations. As climate change intensifies water scarcity, the likelihood of internal instability and cross-border tensions will rise. Hence, a regional cooperative mechanism is urgently needed, one that addresses not only equitable water distribution but also long-term security and sustainability. As the largest regional power, India must lead trust-building efforts and support transparent, inclusive mechanisms under regional forums like SAARC. While diplomacy must remain the first line of action, the paper acknowledges that India may, in worst-case scenarios, need to assert its strategic leverage to safeguard its interests. Ultimately, managing South Asia’s transboundary waters equitably and cooperatively is essential not just for national water security, but for lasting regional peace and resilience against external geopolitical pressures.

The water resources of the Indus River basin are vital to Pakistan’s agricultural economy. One of the most contentious issues between Pakistan and India after the 1947 partition of British India was water distribution. In 1960, the World Bank mediated the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT), which laid the groundwork for the management of river waters that cross international borders. As an uncommon instance of collaboration between the two adversaries, the treaty has persisted through decades of political animosity. However, things have become so bad lately that it is about to happen. Indian officials accused Pakistan of complicity after 26 people were killed by terrorists in Pahalgam, India. As a measure of extraordinary reprisal, India threatened to cut off the water supply to Pakistan and suspended the IWT on April 25, 2025. Because of this escalation, a nuclear war between the two nuclear-armed neighbors is now very likely. Cutting off the water supply will have a devastating effect on Pakistan, especially in the agricultural and hydroelectric power industries, which are already struggling to cope. There would be devastating humanitarian, ecological, and geopolitical effects from using water as a tool of political manipulation. Reforms to treaties and diplomatic action are urgently required, as this paper demonstrates. The IWT’s demise might set off a chain reaction of regional disasters if there is no international mediation or cooperative governance. Halting water from becoming a weapon of war requires immediate global action.

The Indus Waters Treaty is considered a key example of India–Pakistan cooperation, but less has been said about its critical influence on state-making in both countries. This book reveals the importance of the Indus Basin river system, and thus control over it, for Indian and Pakistani claims to sovereignty after South Asia’s Partition in 1947. Securing water flows was a key aim for both governments. In 1960 the Indus Waters Treaty ostensibly settled the dispute, but in fact failed to address critical sources of tension. Examples include the role of water in the Kashmir conflict and the riverine geography of Punjab’s militarized border zone. Despite the recent resurgence of disputes over water-sharing in South Asia, the historical causes and consequences of the region’s flagship natural resources treaty remain little understood. Based on new research in South Asia, the United States and United Kingdom, this book places the Indus dispute, for the first time, in the context of decolonization and Cold War-era development politics. Using perspectives from environmental history, political geography, and international relations, it examines the discord over riparian rights at local, national and international levels, arguing that we can only explain its importance and longevity in light of India and Pakistan’s state-building initiatives after independence. In the process, it puts forward a new reading of territoriality in South Asia.

Transboundary river basins (TRBs) in South Asia are vital lifelines, supporting the livelihoods, agriculture, and economies of millions of people across the region. Since the political partitions of the subcontinent, water distribution in these basins has been a major issue, shaping agricultural productivity and economic growth. In the era of climate change, however, TRBs have become even more critical, as they are increasingly associated with disaster hotspots, environmental degradation, and resource-based conflicts. These challenges often translate into serious geopolitical tensions, making sustainable management essential for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals in South Asia. This study explores the root causes of conflicts in the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra basins, shared by India, China, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Bhutan, and Nepal. Key disputes relate to water-sharing, hydropower projects, disaster management, cross-border pollution, climate change impacts, and inadequate mechanisms for data sharing, dispute resolution, and cooperation. Despite numerous treaties and agreements since independence, most issues remain unresolved. Large-scale infrastructure developed by upstream regions often reduce water availability downstream, creating socio-ecological threats and exacerbating tensions. The study argues that ecologically sustainable management, grounded in the principles of ‘equitable and reasonable utilisation’ and ‘no significant harm’, is the only viable pathway forward. Strengthening cooperation at local, national, and regional levels is critical for conflict resolution, resilience building, and long-term environmental sustainability in South Asia.

The Indus Waters Treaty was created in 1960 to allocate water between India and Pakistan. Climate change was not considered then, but hydrology and conflict resolution have progressed. Climate change has altered water availability, including volume, timing, frequency, and quality. Population growth, urbanization, and climatic events have impacted Pakistan’s water supply. This tension could escalate into conflict without addressing the treaty’s knowledge and practice gaps. Advancements in transboundary watercourse management, environmental monitoring, and data acquisition are necessary. Water remains a source of tension, and prompt action is needed to ensure sustainable water resource management. One possible solution to this issue is to integrate modern knowledge on climate change into the IWT and harmonize it with the current set of international water laws and regulations. Hence, it is imperative to formulate a framework enabling both countries to reach a consensus and introduce climate change-related clauses and provisions into the IWT.

The Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) and the Agreement on the Cooperation for the Sustainable Development of the Mekong River Basin are two of the most important transboundary water treaties signed between member states that have a history of disputes and wars. In the case of India and Pakistan, voices to scrap the IWT in both countries are made chiefly because of their day-to-day bitter relationships. The treaty nevertheless remains in effect. The Mekong River Basin countries have had sour relationships in the past, and even after the agreement was signed in 1995 some political differences and disputes between them have remained. In both the Indus and Mekong basins, China is an important upper riparian. This article discusses the IWT and Agreement among the Mekong basin countries and examines the convergences and divergences between the two. It then analyses the role of China, as an upper basin to Indus and Mekong.

311Arbitration — Provisional measures of protection — Court of Arbitration — Indus Waters Treaty, 1960 — Power of Court to order measures if necessary to avoid prejudice to final solution — Criteria — Whether party seeking measures required to demonstrate urgency and risk of irreparable harm — Relevance of criteria identified by International Court of JusticeRivers — Legal regulation — Indus Waters Treaty, 1960 — Possible diversion of waters — Arbitration — Court of Arbitration — Provisional measures — Kishenganga Hydro-Electric Project

Increasing threats related to climate change, water scarcity, and impacts of water diversion have the potential to trigger regional instability in various areas around the globe. This phenomenon is most evident in area surrounding the Brahmaputra River, an international watercourse flowing through China (Tibet), India, and Bangladesh. Contrary to other transboundary river basins in South Asia, the Brahmaputra seem so far to have been much under-examined, especially considering the complex geopolitics involved and potential threats to regional stability. The present chapter aims to review transboundary water management in South Asia with a detailed zoom on the case of the Brahmaputra river basin. This chapter analyses the social and environmental impacts of large-scale hydropower projects on downstream ecosystems and river-dependent populations. It also identifies relevant approaches to sustainable water management and explores major hindrances to effective cross-border cooperation between the countries involved. We aim to ask whether and how can water become a source of international cooperation and shared prosperity rather than a source of conflict.

Municipal solid waste (MSW) management in South Asia represents one of the most pressing urban governance challenges, shaped by rapid urbanization, institutional fragmentation, and weak integration of circular economy principles. This paper undertakes a decade-long systematic and bibliometric review (2015–2025) of 592 peer-reviewed studies retrieved from Scopus applying PRISMA guidelines. The bibliometric analysis demonstrates a steep rise in scholarly output, from fewer than 30 papers in 2015 to over 130 in 2024, with India and Bangladesh accounting for the majority of contributions, while smaller states such as Bhutan, Maldives, and Afghanistan remain underrepresented. Research is concentrated in engineering and environmental sciences, with keyword clusters shifting from traditional waste disposal and landfilling toward circular economy, recycling, and governance integration. Across the systematic evidence base, India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan generate over 80% of South Asia’s MSW yet recycle less than 25%, highlighting systemic deficiencies in policy coherence, financing, and informal sector recognition. This study contributes uniquely by benchmarking governance frameworks across eight South Asian countries, aligning technological and policy innovations with sustainability pathways, and advancing a regional roadmap for inclusive, circular, and resilient MSW governance.