Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy and the Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome Taxonomy for Classifying Multiple-Choice Questions:

This study aims to improve the academic performance of selected Grade 10 students in science 10: Chemical reaction through integration of Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) and Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO) Taxonomy in teaching. This is to address the problem of the low MPS in Science 10 and the increasing number of learners-at-risk of failing (LARFs). This study utilized quasi-experimental design. The experimental group was exposed to integration of Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) and Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO) Taxonomy in teaching-learning process. Based on the analysis of the data, the following results are found Pre assessment scores of students in science 10 needs improvement since the obtained mean score was less than 50%, after the integration of Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) and Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO) Taxonomy the Post assessment scores were improved. Relative to pre- and post-assessment of students in science 10, there is significant difference. This implied that integration of Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) and Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO) Taxonomy in teaching was effective in improving the academic performance of selected Grade 10 students in science. Therefore, the following recommendations are offered: (1) Principals may encourage teachers to be innovative by experimenting with new intervention / innovation. (2) Teachers may administer pre-assessment before applying any intervention to determine the degree of improvement in the students’ performance after implementation. (3) Students may accept the challenges of innovation such as integration of Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) and Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO) Taxonomy and be willing to subject themselves to the pre and post assessment administer by the teacher as basis for intervention effectiveness.

This research was done to describe students’ ability toward mathematical reasoning in solving statistics test within mean material based on structure of the observed learning outcome (SOLO) taxonomy. There were two participants in this research who have the highest score and the average score. This research was used descriptive qualitative. The collecting data in this research were got from students’ answer sheets and interview. Each question in the test was made based on the indicator in stages of SOLO taxonomy. The interview guidelines used in this test was adapted from the list of questions in Newman analysis procedure. The collected data were analyzed by using qualitative analysis technique, particularly the model of interactive analysis technique. The result shows that the high achiever student stands in the extended abstract stage in SOLO taxonomy when solving the statistics test within mean material, meanwhile the other student belongs to the multi-structural stage of SOLO taxonomy when solving the question about mean.

This article explores the application of different educational taxonomies in measuring students' cognitive learning outcomes. The objectives were to compare three educational taxonomies--namely, the Structure of the Observed Learning Outcomes (SOLO) taxonomy, Bloom's taxonomy and reflective thinking measurement model--and to test the application value of these taxonomies. A comparative literature review was conducted to provide an underlying conceptual framework. Recommendations from this review were examined experimentally. Scripts of long essay papers and short classroom discussion responses were analyzed by the modified versions of the taxonomies. It was found that SOLO is suitable for measuring different kinds of learning outcomes. However, finer categorization of SOLO levels did not eradicate the problem of SOLO's conceptual ambiguity. It is suggested that the next step of research should be on setting up panels of judges to find out which taxonomy is suitable for measuring what learning outcomes under which contexts.

Whilst the role of disciplinary literacy in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education is becoming more prominent, there appears to be little adaptation or allowance made for English as a foreign or second language (EFL/ESL) students learning science in English, as well as no clear understanding of what comprises disciplinary literacy in science. In this article, we define the construct of disciplinary literacy in science education and justify the use of the Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO) taxonomy (Biggs and Collis, Teaching for quality learning at university 1982) as a tool for measuring EFL students’ disciplinary literacy development. This SOLO taxonomy was trialled in a STEM integrated astronomy course enhanced with a digital storytelling approach. Data were collected from adolescent EFL students’ written responses in their pre- and post-Astronomy Diagnostic Test. The results show a positive change in participants’ science disciplinary literacy development and contribute to the understanding of the EFL/ESL students’ science disciplinary literacy development and assessment.

Implementing higher-order thinking skills into teaching-learning practice has become a priority for any teaching program anywhere today. This study aims to evaluate two books of BIPA (Bahasa Indonesia bagi Penutur Asing) 7 Sahabatku Indonesia (2019) based on the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT). The content analysis approach was used in this study to analyze research data in the form of instructions and questions classified using the RBT category. First, the analysis results showed that the instructions and questions in the two BIPA books were dominated by lower-order thinking skills (‘understanding' and 'remembering'). Second, although lower-order thinking skills dominated the instructions and questions in the two BIPA books, this study revealed that the majority of the instructions and questions classified as lower-order thinking skills in both textbooks analyzed can be changed into higher-order thinking skills. The findings of this study infer that the majority of instructions and questions in the BIPA 7 Sahabatku Indonesia need to be revised to encourage higher-order thinking skills-oriented teaching. These findings serve as a reminder for textbook writers of the importance of providing cognitive activities that can help learners develop both lower-order and higher-order thinking skills in textbooks.

An important issue that has received insufficient attention in the use of problem-based learning in the medical curriculum is the mode of assessing the level of difficulty of patient cases. In the present study, the level of difficulty of case-based questions in a veterinary degree final examination in reproduction was evaluated. First, cognitive taxonomies were evaluated to clarify whether qualitative methods such as Bloom's taxonomy, the Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO) taxonomy, and the Amsterdam Clinical Challenge Scale (ACCS) differed from each other as evaluation tools for problem-based cases. Using these taxonomies, 30 case-based questions from the final examination in reproduction in the Helsinki veterinary program were initially evaluated to determine which one was best suited to the evaluation of the difficulty of cases. In follow-up, the same cases were also evaluated by an experienced veterinary instructor in reproduction, with the aim of gaining insight into using these approaches to evaluating difficulty. It would appear, from this preliminary assessment, that the SOLO taxonomy may be the most suitable for evaluating the difficulty of patient cases, since the instructor's quality rating resembled more closely the SOLO than the Bloom taxonomy or the ACCS. It is to be emphasized that the purpose of this study was to provide a preliminary evaluation of possible approaches that might be used to assess patient-case difficulty. Resolving all issues will require a greater number of evaluations of all components.

Focusing on the relationship between teaching and learning and being skeptical about claims often made about the ‘learning’ potential of new technologies, this paper explores the use of The Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO) Taxonomy and the way it is used to address the needs of diverse students in technologically mediated environments. SOLO is a model of learning that makes learning outcomes visible to all regardless of age, gender, culture or socio-economic background. When used within the Differential Curriculum Model of New Zealand it is able to provide diverse students with an explicit common language for learning outcomes, for self-assessment and peer-assessment. Students learn to synthesise and integrate information; identify learning experiences and learning interventions aligned to their intended learning outcomes; choose relevant technology-mediated environments in which to learn; and build knowledge to create new understandings. In this way diverse students become versatile learners with ownership and control of their learning outcomes, ready to live well with others in whatever contexts their futures might offer.

Demonstrating knowledge of major concepts and critical thinking are common learning outcomes for general education courses, especially in the sciences. Although numerous valid and reliable measures of conceptual understanding exist, the determination of critical thinking level is often more difficult, subjective, and domain-specific. This study investigates the relationship between domain-specific critical thinking and the learning of force and motion concepts within laboratory activities in a first semester, non-calculus college physics course. Regression analyses were used while controlling for age, prior physics coursework, and the conceptual understanding pretest score. Conceptual understanding was measured using the valid and reliable Force and Motion Conceptual Evaluation (FMCE). Critical Thinking (CT) was determined using the Holistic Critical Thinking Scoring Rubric (HCTSR) and the Structure of the Observed Learning Outcomes (SOLO) Taxonomy. The results indicate that students' CT has a significant correlation with their learning of force and motion concepts. In other words, students who demonstrate a Newtonian view of force and motion also demonstrate higher levels of CT. Thus, FMCE post-test scores could be used as a proxy for students' CT measurements within a first semester physics course. Additionally, the preference of the SOLO Taxonomy is based on ease of use and estimates of inter-rater reliability.

Curriculum simply refers to the means and materials with which students will interact for the purpose of achieving identified educational outcomes (Ebert et al., 2013). In Turkey, the curricula for a variety of courses to be taught in primary and secondary state schools are designed by the Ministry of National Education (MoNE), and they are subject to change at uncertain periods. The current research aims to investigate curricula for English as a foreign language course for 5th, 6th and 7th grades that have been recently introduced by MoNE (2017). It exclusively compares them through an analysis of learning outcomes identified in each based on the Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO) taxonomy developed by John Biggs and Kevin Collis (1982). Accordingly, document analysis method was used to analyze learning outcomes identified in the above-mentioned curricula into four levels of the SOLO taxonomy: (i) uni-structural, (ii) multi-structural, (iii) relational, and (iv) extended abstract. The study will report findings obtained from the analysis and practical implications on the curriculum design of EFL courses taught in various grades, and conclude with a few suggestions for further directions.

The Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO) taxonomy offers a comprehensive model for evaluating the depth and complexity of student understanding, making it particularly pertinent to the evolving landscape of medical education. This monograph examines its significance and contextual applicability, outlining its historical roots and evolution while emphasizing its relevance within contemporary educational frameworks. It delves into the pros and cons of SOLO taxonomy as discussed in current literature, illustrating its strengths in structuring assessments and learning outcomes, while acknowledging criticisms and limitations. The role of SOLO in a systemsbased approach to medical education is examined, followed by a review of global studies that have employed this taxonomy in curriculum planning and evaluation. Special focus is given to the practicalities and potential of implementing SOLO taxonomy in the Indian medical education landscape, taking into account local constraints and opportunities. The monograph also presents insights into the emerging role of artificial intelligence in applying SOLO taxonomy effectively, offering possibilities for automated analysis and adaptive learning. A comparative discussion with other educational taxonomies provides clarity on its unique position and potential synergies. The monograph concludes with reflections on the future prospects of SOLO taxonomy as a tool to enhance teachinglearning processes and align educational goals with measurable learner outcomes in medical education.

Although the Ghanaian mathematics curriculum emphasizes critical thinking as a core competence, students still appear to lack this skill. In this mixed-method study, the Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO) taxonomy was used to assess senior high school students’ thinking levels in permutation and combination. A sample of 256 males and 104 females was randomly selected from three senior high schools for the study. The data were collected using tests and interviews, and analyzed descriptively and inferentially using Kruskal-Wallis tests. The results showed that while only one-fifth of the students reached the higher relational and extended abstract thinking levels, the majority (73.9%) remained at the lower levels of pre-structural, uni-structural, and multi-structural thinking. These students struggled to apply basic counting and multiplication principles in solving higher-order thinking problems. The Kruskal-Wallis H test further revealed statistically significant differences in thinking levels across the study programmes. General Science students demonstrated the highest thinking levels, followed by General Agriculture and Business students. The study concluded that students’ thinking levels in permutation and combination were low. It is recommended that teachers, textbook authors, and curriculum developers adopt representations and activity-based teaching strategies to help students develop a conceptual understanding of the topic.

Large classes taught with didactic lectures and assessed with multiple-choice tests are commonly reported to promote lower order (LO) thinking and a surface approach (SA) to learning. Using a case study design, we hypothesized that incorporating instructional scaffolding of core physiology principles and assessing students exclusively with long-answer written tests would encourage higher order (HO) thinking and promote a deep approach (DA) to learning in a two-course physiology sequence (Phys I and II), despite their large size. Test questions were categorized as LO or HO according to the Blooming Biology Tool, and students' LO and HO performance was determined for each of six tests across the two courses. The validated Revised Two-Factor Study Process Questionnaire survey tool was administered at the beginning and end of each course to measure student approach to learning. HO performance was maintained across Phys I (72.9 ± 19.4 vs. 74.8 ± 20.7%, P = 0.37) and significantly improved across Phys II (69.9 ± 18.4 vs. 79.4 ± 14.8%, P < 0.001). Unexpectedly, students' LO performance declined from the beginning to end of Phys I (78.5 ± 20.6 vs. 69.4 ± 17.9%, P < 0.001) and Phys II (80.5 ± 19.6 vs. 72.2 ± 24.3%, P < 0.001). Students' approach to learning did not change throughout Phys I or II, but at each time point students preferred a DA over a SA. Taken together, these results indicate that an intentionally designed large lecture class can support a DA to learning and suggests that this teaching and assessment structure may be particularly well suited to promote HO thinking, albeit possibly at the expense of LO thinking.

Students can take different approaches to learning and studying: deep (understanding material); surface (memorizing details), and strategic (motivated by assessments). It is important to know how assessments affect student choices of approach. Students' learning approaches in Year 2 of the medical programme were measured using the Approaches to Study Skills Inventory for Students. The course was specifically designed to promote a deep approach and deter a surface approach, with explicit learning objectives and assessment constructively aligned according to Biggs' Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO) taxonomy. The marks of individual students in different components of the assessment were compared with their scores for the 3 learning approaches. Marks correlated positively with deep and strategic approaches and negatively with surface approach across a range of assessment methods (relatively well with modified essays and multiple-choice questions, but poorly with in-course assignments). Peer assessment correlated particularly strongly with strategic approach. The correlations met our expectations in terms of direction, but were weaker and less consistent than anticipated. Possible reasons include the drive to test basic (core) material, the use of questions that may limit students' scope of expression and markers' ability to detect a deep approach. It is, however, important to refine medical programmes, particularly assessments, so that they concur with and do not adversely affect students' learning approaches.

The information-based society determines that the key factor to achieve success is the development of sophisticated thinking. That said, the thinking process cannot be just a mere imitation of cognitive work, since the digital age requires the authentic skills of working with a flow of information that is being constantly updated. This paper deals with the last stage of the study devoted to the development of sophisticated thinking. It focuses on the enhancement of higher order thinking skills. We claim that the cognitive processes should be based on three phases: development of disposition towards both thinking process and processed information; development of lower order thinking skills which serves as an indispensable basis for developing higher order thinking skills; and development of higher order thinking skills. The omission or reordering of any of these phases may result in significant deterioration of the obtained results. The special emphasis is put on the idea that higher order thinking skills are more effectively developed when lower order thinking skills have already been interiorized. Furthermore, the development of disposition is regarded as the cornerstone of the development of sophisticated thinking in general. Also, due to its defining feature of polysemy, a literary text is considered to be the most appropriate basis for enhancing students’ thinking skills. For the purpose of verifying the theoretical ideas, a qualitative study has been conducted. The two groups of students, who participated in the first and second stages (three-month cycle each) of our project, continue to be involved in this one. They are second-year bachelor students of the Higher School of Economics who are studying English as a second language. On the basis of the ideas expressed by B. Bloom about the division between lower and higher order thinking skills and by J. Mezirow about transformative learning we designed tasks to enhance higher order thinking skills. These tasks were related to the short stories written by D. Barthelme and printed as a collection, Sixty Stories. To teach the students of both groups (control and experimental), the text-based approach with special techniques to measure the students’ level of understanding and the ability to apply the given information was used. The results of the experiment indicated that the students of both groups made headway in their application of thinking skills. However, the students of the experimental group demonstrated a more significant shift due to the fact that the development of their disposition towards cognitive processes and processed information had been specifically targeted over the course of the first and second stages of the project. Another important outcome of the study was that the participants’ frame of reference was extended which allows us to speculate that the development of sophisticated thinking may result in the change of a person’s interpretation of socio-cultural situation. Hence, a further in-depth study of the issue should be conducted.

The objective of this research was obtain empirical evidence from the distribution of Higher order thinking skills based on the revised edition of Bloom’s Taxonomy on multiple choices questions in reading test items in reading skill at English department 2018.This research was conducting by using content analysis method, because the researcher identifies the specific characters of the material in reading multiple choices questions in reading test items. This research uses qualitative data because the data is in the form of words. The object of this research was the reading multiple choices in reading test items at English department 2018. The data was collected through several instruments, namely the exercises sheet of reading test items, interview, checklist table and Bloom’s taxonomy guidelines. The result of this research showed that, the higher order thinking skills in reading skill at English department obtained 11 out of 25 questions in reading multiple choices (44%) while the lower order thinking questions obtained 14 of 25 reading multiple choices questions (56%). The result of the distribution of higher order thinking skills were : analyze skills get the highest distribution, 6 of 25 multiple choices questions in reading test items (24%), evaluating skills get 4 out of 25 questions in reading test items (16%), create skills get 1 out of 25 questions in reading test items (4%). Overall, it concluded that the distribution of the higher order thinking skills is lower than lower order thinking skills.