REVIEW OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERIWINKLE/PALM KERNEL SHELL-REINFORCED EPOXY MATRIX HYBRID COMPOSITES FOR BRAKE PAD PRODUCTION

This report investigates the production and mechanical evaluation of bio-composite material from coconut (Cocos nucifera) shells, palm kernel (Elaeis guineensis) shells, periwinkle (Littorina littorea) shells as an alternative to grinding wheel production. The high cost of these non-biodegradable conventional abrasive grinding wheels and its pollution challenge to the users and their environment has become a challenging situation that requires critical thinkers to proffer alternative. Therefore this research work is a response to the posing challenge. In this report, raw samples of Coconut Shell (CNS), Palm Kernel Shell (PKS) and Periwinkle Shell (PWS) were collected and sorted and pulverized using a hammer mill into different particle sizes of 250, 500 and 850 μ m. These particles were blended at mixing ratios of 75:0:0, 0:75:0, 0:0:75, 40:20:15, 20:40:15 and 30:30:15 of CNS, PKS and PWS as sample A,B,C,D,E and F; bonding with 23% weight of resin as a binder while 2% cobalt compound and methyl-ethyl ketone peroxide. Sample C has the highest compressive strength in the particle size of 0.25mm, 0.50mm and 0.85mm respectively, with the strengths over 5000N/mm2. Sample D, 0.25mm particle size has the highest compressive strength of 3740N/mm2 compare to 0.50mm and 0.85mm and might be the effect grain size and compacting pressure during molding. The highest value of tensile strength is seen in sample E of 0.85mm particle size with 0.829 N/mm2 while the lowest tensile strength is seen in is as result of higher particle size and increase in PKS in the blend. The results show that the production of abrasive grinding wheels from the blend of palm kernel shell, coconut shell, and periwinkle shell is possible.

The needs for eco-friendly composites have initiated the use of agricultural wastes as possible replacements for expensive synthetic carbon and glass fillers for metal and polymer strengthening. In this study, degree of refinement of palm kernel shells, coconut shells and periwinkle shells has been investigated through ball-milling approach. Palm kernel, coconut and periwinkle shells were pulverised using disc grinder and refined using top-down approach under the same milling conditions. The particles of palm kernel, coconut and periwinkle shells obtained were analysed and their sizes were determined. Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopic and X-ray Diffractometric analyses indicated different compositions of the examined agricultural wastes particles. Imaging sizing of the particles indicated attainment of nanoparticles when milling for 74 hours at 10 charge ratios for both carbonized and uncarbonized palm kernel, coconut and periwinkle shells. Comparison of sizes showed that uncarbonized palm kernel shell has a least grain size among other uncarbonized agricultural waste particles. Therefore, uncarbonised palm kernel shells have highest breakage tendency among others. KEYWORDS : Degree, Refinement, Agricultural wastes, Fillers, Milling.

Performance of non-conventional materials namely palm kernel shell (PKS) and periwinkle shell (PWS) were investigated. Sieve analysis, aggregate impact value (AIV), aggregate crushing value (ACV), bitumen penetration, Marshall Stability, flash and fire point were carried out in accordance with American Standard for Materials and Testing (ASTM) and British Standard (BS) specifications. A total of thirty-six samples were prepared by partially replacing coarse aggregate with PKS and PWS at 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50%. The AIV and ACV values of 35.85% and 11.49% were obtained for PWS, while 6.42% and 9.22% respectively were obtained for PKS; this is usable for wearing course. The 10% partial replacement with PWS has Marshall Stability value of 2.33kN; 10% and 20% partial replacement with PKS has Marshall Stability values of 3.0kN and 2.2kN respectively, while 10%, 20% and 30% partial replacement with combination of PWS and PKS has Marshall Stability values of 3.22kN, 2.41kN and 2.21kN respectively; thus satisfying the requirement for light traffic road. Also, 10% and 20% partial replacement with the combination of PWS and PKS gives a flow value of 8.9 mm and 8.5 mm which can be used for light traffic. Hence, 10% to 20% partial replacement of coarse aggregate with PWS and PKS can be used as alternative material in asphaltic concrete to reduce the cost of construction.

Excessive usage of materials is causing fast depletion of natural stone deposit. This study therefore investigates the performance of palm kernel shells (PKS) and periwinkle shells (PS) as alternatives coarse aggregates in concrete. Forty cubes and 40 cylinders each were produced with PKS and PS as replacement materials for granite. Series of tests were conducted to determine their performances. The results showed that, compressive and tensile strengths decrease as PKS and PS content increases, which allow specific area to increase, thus requiring more cement paste to bond effectively with the shells. The result also revealed that for all curing ages, palm kernel shell concrete (PKSC) have lower compressive strength and tensile strength than periwinkle shell concrete (PSC). The compressive strength and tensile strength of the 28-day PKSC with 100% replacement were 4.33 N/mm2 and 3.68 N/mm2 respectively; that of PSC at 100% replacement were 5.89 N/mm2 and 4.95 N/mm2 respectively; and granite concrete without any replacement were 25.11 N/mm2 and 11.74 N/mm2 respectively. It is concluded that both PKSC and PSC satisfied the compressive strength and tensile strength requirement of light weight concrete, although PS has better gradation and bonding to cement than PKS. This implies that PS is best suited as replacement for granite in lightweight concrete than PKS. It is recommended that the mix-ratio should be altered to get higher values of compressive strength; and both PKS and PS should be used for lightweight concretes.

Affordable housing issue: Experimental investigation on properties of eco-friendly lightweight concrete produced from incorporating periwinkle and palm kernel shells

The study delves into the comprehensive investigation of the effects of palm kernel shells (PKS) and palm seeds as alternative additives in the production process of cast aluminum pulleys, employing green sand molds as a key medium. Given the escalating environmental concerns, alongside the growing imperative for employing sustainable materials in industrial practices, agricultural by-products such as palm kernel shells and seeds emerge as material for enhancing the properties of foundry sand and the characteristics of the resulting cast products. This research work is aimed at producing Aluminum pulley using palm kernel seeds and shells as additives and to examine its effects on the characteristics of cast Aluminum pulley. The outcome of the research will be a solution to failure of Aluminum pulley due to fatigue. The research methodology encompassed a systematic approach in which varying percentages of PKS and seeds were methodically incorporated into the green sand molds. Three pulleys (Specimen A, B and C) were casted using silica sand, starch serves as the binder (from cassava), fibrous material from palm kernel shells and reducing agents from palm kernel seeds This study meticulously assessed the impact of these additive materials on a range of crucial mechanical properties, including tensile strength, elongation, hardness, and the overall surface quality of the cast aluminum pulleys, in addition to evaluating the dimensional accuracy of the castings produced. Alongside these performance metrics, the research also focused on key indicators such as the mold strength and thermal stability of the resulting green sand mixtures, which are paramount for ensuring the overall effectiveness and reliability of the casting process. After casting, the following tests were conducted on the specimens: Macro inspection, Hardness test, Microscopic examination, Impact test and machining test respectively. Notably, the results indicated a significant enhancement in mold cohesiveness and thermal resistance with the addition of PKS and seeds, leading to marked improvements in the mechanical properties of the final castings produced through this process. The study identified that optimal performance was achieved at a specific blend ratio of these biomass materials, suggesting their potential utility as effective and sustainable additives in the foundry industry. The findings of this research hold significant implications for the advancement of more sustainable casting practices within the aluminum foundry sector. Furthermore, this work promotes the concepts of resource recovery and waste reduction, while simultaneously ensuring that product integrity and quality are maintained at high standards. By integrating agricultural by-products into industrial applications, this study contributes valuable insights that can aid in transitioning towards a more sustainable and environmentally friendly future in metal casting processes. This paper comprehensively explores the substantial potential of incorporating palm kernel shells (PKS) and seeds into aluminum cast pulleys, aiming to not only enhance their mechanical properties but also promote a sustainable approach to the utilization of agricultural by-products, such as Palm Kernel Shells (PKSH) and Palm Kernel Seeds (PKS), in foundry applications has garnered significant attention due to their beneficial effects on the material utilization in casting industry. This study aims to develop new Molding additives from PKSH and PKS to enhance sustainable practices in Metal Casting. The research investigates the effects of incorporating PKSH and PKS into a green Sand Mold mixture for its stability, cast surface finish, and mechanical strength. Experimental results showed that adding palm kernel shells and seed-grounded powder (PKSP) significantly improves the thermal stability, flow-ability, and cohesiveness of green sand. Incorporating palm kernel shells and seed-grounded powder (PKSP) significantly reduces casting defects during manufacturing. It also conducts an in-depth investigation to relate the physical and mechanical characteristics of aluminum composites with varying percentages of palm kernel shells and seeds into a green Sand Mold mixture for its stability. Notably, adding an optimal blend of 4.5% PKSHP and 4.5%PKSP, to Specimen B enhances it permeability, minimizes deformation under casting pressures, and produces high-quality cast products. The results comprehensively demonstrate that the integration of these organic waste materials can significantly improve the mechanical performance of aluminum pulleys alongside contributing positively to environmental sustainability by effectively minimizing waste generation promoting the principles of a circular economy, and highlighting palm kernel by- products' potential, to encourages further exploration into integrating these materials into existing manufacturing processes. It also advances environmental stewardship and industrial productivity, especially in the foundry industry.

In recent times, increasing demand for raw aggregate has emphasized the need for construction industry to adopt sustainable practices by exploring alternative materials, such as agro-waste, to address resource depletion and reduce environmental pollution., This current study investigated the suitability of combining discarded periwinkle shell (PWKS) and palm kernel shell (PMKS) at low-replacement volumes to partially substitute granite in ecofriendly load-bearing cement-based interlocking paver units for use on medium-duty traffic roads. 108 paver samples were produced, targeting a 28-day strength of 30 MPa, using a mix proportion of 1:1:2 (cement: sand: granite) and water-cement ratio of 0.50. Physical and chemical compositions of materials are examined, while the produced paver samples were tested for their water absorption, compressive and split-tensile strengths properties. The influence of curing (immersion and open air) on the strength development was evaluated. Findings showed that the shells recorded low physical properties but increased water intake tendency. A gradual decrease in the strength performances of the pavers was observed as the amount of PWKS and PMKS increases in the mixes. The water absorption tendency increases with increasing PMKS and PWKS levels. Pavers cured by complete immersion in water recorded good strength and achieved the 30 MPa compared to open air cured pavers. This study recommends load-bearing pavers of up to 30 MPa can be made by combining PMKS and PWKS at a low-replacement level of 5% deployed for medium-traffic roads, but with adequate curing technique. Outcomes showed the viability of incorporating periwinkle and palm kernel shells as aggregate in making standard paver units of adequate strength and resistance to water to promote sustainable construction practices.

This study examined the morphology and microstructural evolution of resin-bonded palm kernel and coconut shell grain-based abrasive grinding wheels and their physico-mechanical and tribological properties. Raw palm kernel shell (PKS) and coconut shell (CNS) samples were obtained, sorted, sun- and oven-dried, pulverised, and screened into fines of 250, 500 and 850 μm grain sizes, and blended at PKS to CNS mixing ratios of 1:0, 0:1, 1:2, 1:1 and 2:1, respectively. The blended grains, on a weight basis of the total aggregates, were bonded with 25 wt.% polyester resin and hardened and catalysed with 1.5 wt.% cobalt compound and methyl-ethyl ketone peroxide. The aggregates were moulded and compressed at a constant pressure of 18 MPa, ejected, and room-cured before being oven-cured to produce the wheels. The microstructural, water absorption, impact, flexural, hardness, and wear rate properties of the produced samples were evaluated. The properties studied were significantly influenced by grain sizes and mixing ratios of the PKS and CNS in the wheels. The least hardness value, 6.42 HRB, and wear rate, 0.44 mg/m were found in wheels produced from aggregates with pure PKS content with 850 and 250 μm grain sizes, respectively. The wheels' durability qualities suggest they could be used as abrasive grinding wheels, in particular, for wood cutting and finishing processes.

In this study, the optimum process parameters for the manufacture of brake friction linings (BFLs) from palm kernel shells (PKS), periwinkle shells (PWS), and coconut shell (CNS) composites were established using signal–to–noise ratio based on the Taguchi technique. The L9(34) orthogonal array was set up for the investigation of the performance metrics (coefficient of friction, wear rate, and hardness) synergized by multiple criteria evaluation. The manufacturing parameters considered were molding pressure, molding temperature, curing time, and heat treatment time. Consequently, the optimized parameters were utilized for the production of different BFL composites of the PKS/PWS/CNS mix. Finally, entropy and TOPSIS techniques were employed to isolate the best composite for comparative analysis. The results show that the optimum process parameters are 29 MPa (molding pressure), 120 °C (molding temperature), 6 min (curing time), and 2 h (heat treatment time). ANOVA using Minitab 21.1.0.0 shows that the effects of the molding pressure and curing time are statistically significant at α = 0.05, with a total contribution of 94.45%. The entropy-TOPSIS analysis gave sample S2pkpc with a composition of 12% PKS, 15% PWS, and 18% CNS as the best composite. Compared to the asbestos BFL, the composite shows an improvement in friction coefficient (45.7%), wear rate (66%), density (60.2%), and oil and water absorption (233%) (542.8%) respectively. The live test on a Peugeot 301 using S2pkpc BFL confirms the satisfactory performance of the composite. However, an increased wear rate was observed at vehicle speeds above 90 km/h.

The improper handling and disposal of waste tyres in many African countries is still a serious problem which has caused environmental and health hazards. Like waste tyres, the proper reuse of agricultural wastes, such as palm kernel shells, is also a challenge as the production has increased over the years. In the field of civil engineering, effort have been made to recycle waste tyres and palm kernel shells in concrete production to mitigate some of the environmental problems arising from these wastes. The recycling of such waste for civil engineering applications has been heightened with the development of new technologies. This study was carried out to evaluate and assess the effects of recycled tyre steel fibres and palm kernel shells on the compressive, splitting tensile and flexural strengths of structural lightweight concrete, using recycled tyre steel fibres for reinforcement and palm kernel shells as partial replacement of coarse aggregates. Recycled tyres steel fibres were added in normal-weight concrete at 0.25, 0.50 and 0.75% (Viz., 6, 12 and 18 kg/m 3 ) content and aspect ratio of 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100% to determine the optimal fibres content and aspect ratio. The results show that recycled tyres steel fibres obtained from pyrolysis can improve the compressive and splitting strengths of normal-weight concrete. The optimal fibres content and aspect ratio were used with palm kernel shells at 25, 50, and 75% content to determine the optimal partial replacement of coarse aggregates with palm kernel shells. The maximum compressive and splitting tensile strengths values were obtained at an aspect ratio of 80, palm kernel shell content of 25% and steel content of 0.50%. Normal-weight concrete strength values in flexure were higher than lightweight concrete made with optimal values. Additionally, beams with 25 and 50% content of palm kernel shells with optimal fibre content and aspect ratios qualified as structural lightweight concrete. Keywords: palm kernel shells, recycled tyres steel fibres, waste tyres, lightweight concrete, normal-weight concrete, compressive strength, splitting tensile strength and flexural strength. DOI : 10.7176/CER/11-6-06 Publication date :July 31 st 2019

Concrete has been universally known as conventional building material, which has great effect on walling unit of building production and its component. This experimental study sought the strength parameter of concrete produced with partial replacement of granite with 25% of Periwinkle and 25% Palm kernel shells respectively for future intending use.12 concrete cubes were produced with design mix of 1: 1½: 3 concrete and they were cured for 7, 14, 21 and 28 days to attain maximum strength. Physical properties conducted on the materials were specific gravity (SG), water absorption (WA), grain size distributions, dry and bulk density and mechanical property was also determined through compressive strength to analyze the strength parameter of the concrete. The outcome of the mean strength of three concrete cubes produced, revealed that it increased as the age of concrete progresses from 9.93 N/mm2 at 7 days, to 12.35 N/mm2 at 14 days, 13.73 N/mm2 at 21 days, and as high as 14.93 N/mm2 at 28 days respectively. Therefore, a design mix of 1: 1½: 3 of concrete produced with 25% Periwinkle and 25% Palm kernel shells is advised to be used for lightweight concrete and non-load bearing components in building especially pedestrian, non-motorable way, kerbs for cost effective and waste reduction.

The increasing demand for conventional construction materials and the rising cost of coarse aggregates has led to the growing interest in cost effective and sustainable material alternatives, palm kernel shell presents as a reliable alternative not only because it is cost efficient and sustainable but also because it is an agro-waste product. This study investigates the reliability of palm kernel shell (PKS) as a partial replacement for coarse aggregate in rigid pavement construction. Various replacement levels (10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, and 30%) were analyzed to determine the most efficient PKS content without compromising concrete strength, in accordance with COREN standards. The materials used include cement, fine and coarse aggregates and PKS. This research provides insights into the potential of PKS as a sustainable reinforcement material in concrete. The study concludes that while PKS-modified concrete showed variability in compressive strength, with maximum values of 16.72 N/mm² at 7 days and 18.39 N/mm² at 14 days, the flexural strength remained below serviceable limits, peaking at 0.6 N/mm² with 10% PKS replacement. The lowest split tensile strength (1.595 N/mm²) occurred at 30% PKS at 7 days, while the highest (2.375 N/mm²) was observed with 10% PKS. Therefore, PKS-modified concrete is not recommended for high-load rigid pavement applications

Lightweight engineering materials that are strong, durable, wear and corrosion resistant are required nowadays in the field of engineering, especially in the automobile industry. This study was to develop a hybrid composite material of palm kernel shell (PKS) and periwinkle shell (PS) particles as reinforcements in pure aluminium matrix. The central composite design (CCD) of the response surface methodology (RSM) was used to carry out the design of experiment (DoE). Stir casting method was used to fabricate the specimens. The DoE gave 20 runs (experimental samples) which were replicated three times each, bringing the total number of runs to 60 for each of the six responses considered, and 360 specimens were fabricated in all. Three experimental values were obtained for each of the 120 runs for the wear rate, creep rate, density, tensile strength, hardness and melting temperature. The average values were determined and recorded. Control specimens with 100 wt. % pure aluminium matrix, 0 wt. % of PKS and PS reinforcement particles were prepared. The results showed that the reinforcement particles had significant improvement on mechanical properties of the pure aluminium.

A comparative study on partial replacement of coarse aggregates in concrete with sustainable waste materials

ABSTRACTConcrete is the most popular man-made construction material in the world. However, there is a growing need to use sustainable recycled materials as replacement of conventional aggregate in concrete due to environmental and economic considerations. A possible solution to the waste management problem of agricultural and aquaculture by-products is to use them as an alternative aggregate in concrete. Agricultural and aquaculture by-products such as palm kernel shell, coconut shell, date seed, rubber shell, corn cob, rice husk, periwinkle shell, mussel shell, oyster shell, cockle shell and scallop shell have been used in experimental investigations as partial or full replacement of conventional aggregate in concrete. This paper is a literature review of recent developments in the utilisation of agricultural and aquaculture by-products as aggregate in concrete. Physical and mechanical properties of the by-products, as well as properties of by-product aggregate concrete in fresh and hardened states, are discussed. Trends, developments and possible barriers in using agricultural and aquaculture by-products as aggregate replacement materials in concrete are highlighted. It is recommended, among others, that detailed research on durability properties of concrete containing agricultural and aquaculture by-product aggregates should be carried out.