REVIEW OF JEAN LOPEZ & LASHA OTKHMEZURI, JOUKOV: L`HOMME QUI A VAINCU HITLER

Introduction. The proposed article reveals the main difficulties faced by researchers in studying the events of World War II in Ukraine. Namely, how objectively the factual basis of this period was formed. Therefore, the use of new documents allows to overcome the one-sidedness in the coverage of the complexity of hostilities in Ukraine. In this special place may be occupied by the use, still virtually unknown to researchers, the materials of the collections “Russian Archive. Great Patriotic War “, which contains many unique documents directly related to the planning and course of hostilities in Ukraine. Historical works and materials on the history of the Second World War in Ukraine, which were created in Soviet times, do not provide adequate coverage of hostilities, the military-political command of the Red Army and the main political board and many other key moments of this period. Party and state institutions were the monopoly customers for all literature on the history of the war. Documents about the war were distorted during the war. The myth of 10 Stalinist coups is convincing evidence. Many aspects of the documents of the Stake and the General Staff of the Russian Armed Forces related to the planning and implementation of defense and offensive operations in Ukraine allow us to trace the main causes of Red Army failures in the campaigns of 1941-1942, as well as Of Ukraine. Their main goal was to demonstrate the crimes of the Nazis and the heroism of the Red Army. Instead, the illiterate, and sometimes just criminal, orders of the Soviet command at the beginning of the war were deliberately ignored. In addition, historians were quite transparently forbidden to touch on many important issues, ie research topics were strictly regulated by official censorship. This was primarily due to the fact that in this way the official circles hid from the public the full truth about the war. The use of any facts with a minus sign was prohibited. The work of historians was severely dependent on official interpretations of certain events, the role of researchers was often reduced to commenting and the ability to illustrate positive results, successes and victories. In addition, Ukrainian historiography was not independent, it developed and existed exclusively in the all-Union party-Soviet channel. It should be noted that this collection of documents was published in a very short time at the end of the perestroika in the conditions of a certain pluralism of the decrepit Soviet regime. But even at that time it was printed in a very small circulation. Analysis and study of virtually unknown sources, which were published in the post-Soviet period and are now classified as “secret”, gives a unique opportunity for modern scientists to objectively reproduce the events of World War II in Ukraine. Purpose. The aim of the article is a detailed study of the documents and materials of the collections of the series “Russian Archive. Red Series” and analysis of the information covered in them in order to obtain more objective facts directly related to the planning and course of hostilities in Ukraine. In order to carefully study the key aspects of large-scale and tragic events of World War II, which took place in Ukraine. In Soviet times, archival documents illustrated the official paradigm of interpretation of the events of World War II in Ukraine. Results. The result of the study is the opportunity to obtain a more complete and objective coverage of the events of World War II in Ukraine thanks to, still virtually unknown researchers, unique materials from the series “Russian Archive. Red Series”. Originality. The scientific novelty of the research results is that the formation and publication of the publication in the early 90’s, thanks to the energy and perseverance of O. Yakovlev is extremely important for researchers, and allows to more accurately recreate the extremely tragic period of World War II. This is especially important given that due to negative for democracy and pluralism views of the development of domestic political processes in the Russian Federation, access to them for researchers, as in the days of totalitarianism is closed again. Collections of a series of documents “Russian Archive. The Red Series” allows modern researchers to give an objective assessment of this period, to trace the true nature of hostilities, the efficiency of the reaction of the Soviet military and political leadership to the changes taking place on the fronts. Conclusion. Thus, the inclusion in the scientific circulation of new documents and materials contained in a series of collections makes it possible to significantly expand the source base for studying the events of World War II in Ukraine and to conduct an objective study of this period. Of particular value is information on important strategic operations, as well as highlighting difficulties and miscalculations in the operational management of troops during defense. It should be noted that the collection includes documents of Soviet governmental and military structures, including the USSR State Defense Committee, the Supreme Command, the People’s Commissariat of Defense, the General Staff, the Front Command and the Army.

Freemasonry is an initiatory, ritual tradition. Masonic organizations, most often, have received and are receiving official permission for their activities. The ritual is a secret in Freemasonry. Its most important part is the initiation rite. Modern Freemasonry is very diverse, with many historical Freemasonry rituals published in America and Europe. Russia is an exception in this regard. The full extent of the Masonic initiation ritual, practiced in the 18th - 19th centuries, has not yet been published in Russia. The instructions of Masonic lodges, stored in Russian archives, make it possible to fill this gap. During the ritual, the candidate was frightened with a rope, a dagger, swords pointed at him, hot metal and a cup of blood. The culmination of the ritual took place at the altar, when the candidate took the oath. After this, the master made three ritual blows with a hammer on a compass placed on the candidate's chest. According to the meaning of the ritual, the blood that appears in the cup placed is mixed with the blood of the “brothers” (wine). However, the ritual did not involve the actual consumption of blood. This ritual was intended to enhance the candidate's impression of initiation.

In the article, private acts on the history of Nizhyn Greek Community are characterized on the base of the analysis of archive materials from Ukrainian and Russian Archives. The elements, which made the form of these documents in the 18th — 19th centuries, are analyzed, the purposes of these documents are formulated and legal relations between the parties have been determined. It is noted that depending on the nature of the relationship between contractors, two sub-groups of certifying documents can be distinguished. The first is the documents drawn up by the Nizhyn Greek magistrate for another institution (local governments or departments), which included passports, tickets, certificates. The second sub-group is the acts made by members of the community (announcement, commission, commission and will). Most of them are stored in the funds of the Central State Historical Archives of Ukraine and the State Archives of Chernihiv Oblast. The characteristics of these acts are presented, the elements that compiled the form of the given documents and the legal relations between the parties that they entered are analyzed. It is indicated the information they contain, and analyzed the characteristic elements of the structure of such documents

Using the analysis of materials of record-keeping stored in Ukrainian and Russian archives, the article describes the legal status and development of the economy of the Greek community of the NorthernPryazovia: reports, directives, notifications of the Azov and Novorossiysk governor-general. The same group includes the documents that arose in the process of operation of the Mariupol Greek court. The elements that constituted the form of these documents in the 18th — 19th centuries are analysed, the purpose of these documents is formulated. Among the local record-keeping, the documents of the Mariupol Greek Court (was created in accordance with the charter of 1779) occupy a significant place due to the wealth of statistical information. The court performed administrative, police and judicial functions. The cases of district (powiat) administration, district and zemsky court, orphan and verbal courts, city council (magistrat), district police and volost administrations were concentrated here. According to the origin and informative possibilities, the materials of the Mariupol Greek Court can be divided into the following groups: 1) incoming court documentation from the higher authorities; 3) notebooks and documents submitted to the court by subordinate institutions (accounts, journals, reports, public sentences, etc.); 4) documents submitted to the institution by private individuals (reports, complaints, IOUs); 2) accounting court documentation; 5) papers sent to private individuals by court (notifications, directives), etc. The record-keeping materials of the central institutions allow us to reproduce the following questions on the history of the Greeks of the North Pryazovia: the assignment of land (F. 379 and 383 of the Russian State Historical Archive), the liquidation of the Mariupol Greek Court of the Order of the Mariupol Greeks after the reforms of the 60s and 70s of the 19th century. (f. 1286, 1287, 1291, 1405 of the Russian State Historical Archive).

The article assesses source and archival studies aspects of the V. P. Kozlov’s book “Remove to history ...”: The Peasant Family and Settlement of the Tula Region in the 16th – 20th Centuries. It is the first volume of the study, covering the period up to 1917. The work is devoted to the history and culture of the Yepifan uezd. This uezd is considered in two ways: as a territory, including the villages where the author’s ancestors lived, and as a part of its surroundings. The state of the territory is described for several periods. Via stepwise immersion accompanied by detailing of material, the author advances the restoration of the history of villages and their inhabitants. In the Russian scientific literature, an experience of large-scale and consistent implementation of this approach is a unique case. The author analyzes it theoretically, bringing it into correlation with trends of modern historical science and demonstrating its effectiveness. To study the history of the Yepifan uezd, a significant amount of documents, both published and stored in the archives, has been involved for the first time. V.P. Kozlov divides sources into three classes. In line with his approach used in his works on archeography, he characterizes eight types of sources. Among sources of personal provenance, he underscores oral history documents — records of his relatives’ memoirs collected over the years. He points to the cognitive heterogeneity of these sources: he emphasizes the need to take into account the “author's angles,” notes high reliability of correspondence, especially between relatives. Isolation by V. P. Kozlov of a special class of sacred documentary sources is new. The author refers to these documents as reflecting “relations with the sacred ... beliefs, convictions and symbols” and capturing “the sacrament of human communication with... extrahuman authority.” As an example, he cites his grandmother’s nightly prayers and recordings of miracles of St. Matrona of Moscow. V. P. Kozlov notes an abundance of such sources in the Russian archives. Identifying gaps in sources, he explains the reasons for different preservation of documentary complexes. He dwells on research methods that can partially compensate for the insufficiency of sources. He took some risk in choosing the inhabitants of a small village as main characters of his research. The analysis of source study and archival aspects of his research proves that such work can be successfully carried out even with insufficient sources.

We analysed catch records of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), cod (Gadus morhua), and halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus and Reinhardtius hippoglossoides) from the 17th and 18th centuries from several locations of the Barents and White Seas areas. Historical records, found in Russian archives, allow analysis of long-term series of catches, and sometimes of the average weight of the fish. In total, we obtained data on catches of salmon for 51 years (for the period from 1615 to 1772) and of cod and halibut for 33 years (for the period from 1710 to 1793). These data are comparable with respect to fishing effort within the series. The data on Atlantic salmon are also comparable with statistical data for the period 1875–1915. We found notable fluctuations in catches and sometimes in the average weight of salmon. There was also fluctuation in catches of cod and halibut. Both observational comparison of catch series and temperature data and formal statistical analysis showed that catches tended to decrease during relatively colder periods.

REVIEWS 561 Whitewood, Peter. The Red Army and the Great Terror: Stalin’s Purge of the Soviet Military. Modern War Studies. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 2015. vii + 360 pp. Notes. Bibliography. Index. $37.50. In the introduction to his new history of Stalin’s pre-war purge of the Red Army, Peter Whitewood declares boldly: ‘I offer an entirely new explanation for the purge’ (p. 2). Using ‘huge amounts of previously inaccessible documents from the Russian archives’ (p. 7) he questions ‘Cold War accounts’ — a term he deploys as an epithet a dozen times in his short introduction. These earlier works, by scholars such as Adam Ulam, Robert Tucker and Robert Conquest portrayed Stalin’s assault on the Soviet officer corps as one facet of the dictator’s premeditated, violent quest to subordinate all branches of government and society to his personal rule. By contrast, Whitewood argues that, far from being a well-planned decapitation of the military by a ruthless dictator who justified mass arrests using evidence he knew to be unreliable or even fabricated, Stalin’s army purge ‘appears’ to have been a ‘hesitant, last minute, almost reluctant’ (p. 271) act of ‘an indecisive leader’ (p. 281). ‘Moreover,’ Whitewood declares, ‘there is nothing to suggest that this spy scare in the military was cynically contrived. Stalin seems to have genuinely believed that foreign-backed enemies had infiltrated the ranks and managed to organize a conspiracy at the very heart of the Red Army’ (p. 276). Despite the book’s title, this is no comprehensive study of the Red Army purge. Whitewood writes little about how Stalin actually purged the army, the fate of individual officers, the consequences of the purge on foreign perceptions of Soviet strength, nor its impact on the effectiveness of the Soviet military. Instead, he devotes more than two-thirds of the book to the first two decades of Soviet power, leaving little space for the purge itself, and almost none for its wider consequences. These early chapters are the book’s strongest. Whitewood shows how ‘Stalin was never able to put his full trust in the military’ (p. 280). From the earliest days of the Revolution through the succeeding two decades, Soviet security services suspected officers of sympathizing with the Bolsheviks’ ‘White’ enemies during the Civil War, anti-Communist émigrés during the 1920s, the peasantry during the collectivization of agriculture and Trotskyists during the 1930s. As the threat from Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan grew, the secret police fretted that officers were in league with these foreign enemies. Of the actual purge, Whitewood asks: ‘Why would Stalin build with one hand and destroy with the other? Why actively prepare for war while weakening the Red Army through a mass purge?’ (p. 2). His answer is that the head of the Army, Klimenty Voroshilov, failed adequately to cleanse the ranks of unspecified ‘foreign agents and treacherous former oppositionists’ (p. 284). This alleged failure enabled Nikolai Ezhov, the sinister head of the NKVD, to concoct ‘fascist’ plots, producing evidence extracted by torture and forced SEER, 94, 3, july 2016 562 confessions to link leading officers to foreign, especially Nazi, intelligence. Although Whitewood notes repeatedly that ‘The military-fascist plot had no basis in reality’ (p. 268), he insists that Stalin believed Ezhov’s dark fantasies. Here one encounters the central problem of this study. Although Whitewood uses newly available documents, very few of these originate from the highest levels,whichremainclosedtoresearchers.ItishardtoknowwhatStalinhimself was thinking or planning, and he was not one to share his reasons. Whitewood resorts distressingly often to conjecture, not all of which is persuasive. In one single, short paragraph he tries to explain Stalin’s motives, using the following phrases: ‘it suggests’, ‘[he] appears hesitant’, ‘he seems to have waited’, ‘Stalin presumably wanted’, ‘Stalin faced little choice but to opt for’, ‘it is reasonable to suggest’, ‘perhaps even from a sense of panic’, and ‘the military purge may have sparked the mass operations’ (pp. 271–72). As Winston Churchill said in a different context, ‘the terrible “ifs” accumulate’. Whitewood does not explain how Voroshilov can be faulted for failing to root out enemies, when by Whitewood’s own admission these enemies...

The imperial policy of Russia in the 18th and early 19th centuries led to the formation of various diasporas, with the largest being of Polish, Jewish, German and Finnish origin. They were the focus of attention of the tsarist administration while their status was regulated by a variety of laws. Specific features that distinguished social, political and economic development of the Russian Empire were behind the fact that different regions became home to emerging ethnic communities. Jews, Germans, Poles, Finns, Latvians, and Estonians moved to the outskirts of the state both by forced and voluntarily. Laws of the Russian Empire specified places they could reside in and types of economic activities they could undertake. This article is aimed at defining the formation features pertaining European diasporas in Russia in the late 18th and early 19th century on the national and regional scale. To this end we need to determine the nature of the emergence of the ethnic communities in the Russian macro-regions (such as Siberia), reveal specificity of the Russian legislation regarding Jews, Germans and Poles in historic different periods of the Russian Empire and give a quantitative characterization of the communities. Accomplishing this will make it possible to describe the way the European diasporas formed and developed in Russia over the 18th and 19th centuries. Our approach to these objectives is based on the assumption that Russia throughout the 18th and early 20th century was a classical empire with the diasporas being actors in the national and regional policies rather than existing in isolation. This will help determine the stages and nature of the diasporas' formation and their place in the economic, social and cultural life of individual macro-regions and across Russia. The basis for the study have been published sources and materials from Russian archives. DOI: 10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n5s1p460

The Schleswig-Holstein question, tangled by centuries of diplomatic confrontation between Denmark, German states and several ducal families, came out of the silence of chanceries and archives in the 19th century and resounded loudly throughout Europe in 1864 in the armed confrontation between Austria, Prussia and Denmark. The escalation of the conflict involved all the great powers that pursued their national interests in the development of this confrontation. The relevance of the work lies in the study of Prussian-Russian relations during the war, which remained in the shadow of domestic and foreign historiography. The novelty of the work is due to the fact that the research is based on the study of materials from three archives of Russia and Germany, which have not been introduced into scientific circulation before, in conjunction with four Russian and German periodicals and already published documents, which in this aspect have not been previously analysed, and therefore retain a high research resource. The aim of the work is to assess the potential of Prussian-Russian relations during the war of 1864, and the tasks are to analyse this problem against the background of the fate of the London Protocols of 1850—1852, the integrity of the Danish kingdom, and the determination of the status of Schleswig and Holstein. The military campaign launched by Berlin against Denmark in order to restore the London Protocols and the rights of the German population of Schleswig and Holstein led to the cancellation of the previously concluded treaties concerning the duchies. Behind the artificially maintained confrontation between the two pretenders to the ducal throne, Bismarck played his own game in favour of annexing the duchies to Prussia. In this way he had to make great efforts to ensure that in this matter neutrality was preserved by St. Petersburg, whose position he paid the greatest attention to. However, documents show that Russia pursued its own national interests in solving the question of the disputed duchies.

The article tells about the imams and muezzins of the Tatar Sloboda (settlement) of Moscow, located in the Zamoskvorechye district (southern part of Moscow), as well as separate ethno-social communities of Moscow, in the beginning of the 19ᵗʰ century. Most оf the information about them is stored in various archives in Russia and is not known to researchers. Archival documents cited in the article, previously unpublished, are being introduced into scientific circulation for the first time.

The paper deals with the search and study of the manuscripts from the medieval library of the princes Romodanovsky, preserved in parts in various libraries and archives of Russia. The purpose of this research is to identify and attribute the materials from the collection of the princes Romodanovsky in the holdings of the scientific-research Department of manuscripts of the Library of the Russian Academy of Sciences (BAN). Russian historians M.E. Bychkova, A.L. Khoroshkevich and Y.V. Ankhimyuk made the assumptions that separate manuscripts (the genealogical book of M.G. Romodanovsky, the historical digest “The book of cases”, etc.) belonged to the library of princes Romodanovsky. However, until now, these sources in historiography were not considered in the complex, and there was no idea about the existence of the significant volume of books of ancestral library. Within the scope of investigation, the author reviewed and analysed the best part of manuscript collections of count M.G. Golovkin, count A.I. Osterman and other courtiers, seized in 1741—1742 in the result of the charges of treason. Based on the materials from the BAN holdings in the St. Petersburg branch of the Archives of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the author restored the circumstances of transfer of the manuscript books from the Confiscation Commission to the Russian Academy of Sciences. The article describes that the great part of the manuscript collection of M.G. Golovkin library is made up of the medieval library of princes Romodanovsky, got there as a heritage of Ekaterina Ivanovna, the wife of count M.G. Golovkin and daughter of I.F. Romodanovsky. The study of the collections of other convicts showed that the Commission made serious mistakes in the description of the books. As a result, the significant part of the collection of M. Golovkin was attributed to the books of Osterman. Thus, in the scientific-research Department of manuscripts of the Library of the Russian Academy of Sciences the author identified and attributed more than 15 manuscripts of 17th — beginning of 18th century, which constituted the core of the ancestral library of princes Romodanovsky. The obtained results demonstrate the manuscript tradition of the ruling elite and its book culture in the new way. The paper used such methods as historical, comparative-historical, prosopographic, as well as a number of methods of auxiliary historical disciplines: source studies, historical bibliography, archival heuristics, archeography, palaeography and codicology.

The article is devoted to the prospects of applying one type of mass sources to studying the Russian early modern history These sources were introduced to the scholarship in corpore only in 2018 by the author of the article. This article concerns 734 dated colophons from the Russian manuscripts copied in 1500–1600, which are kept in 44 archives in Russia, Ukraine, Poland and Great Britain. Previously, these sources were selectively used to solve exclusively bibliographical problems connected with determining the origin of manuscripts. It was established that their informational potential isn’t exhausted by these aspects. The systematic research of colophons which inform about more than 150 settlements (cities, large, medium- sized and small monasteries, villages), many hundreds of manuscripts’ scribes and customers representing various social groups expand the opportunities of researchers. The colophons contain the earliest data about the existence of some settlements and personal structure of governors and local officials. Colophons provide information about dozens of known, little known, and unknown noble persons (not rich landlords and the members of the Sovereign’s court) and their participation in some significant events of political history. Colophons give the additional data for historical demography with regards to the periods of scribes’ activity and inner migrations in Russia in the 16th century. These sources broaden the circle of data for the research on the economic situation in the country in different periods, on the important historical and political ideas of this epoch, on the peculiarities of mass consciousness, and on the international contacts in political and cultural spheres.

The article deals with the issues related to the evolution of the use of women in the civil service at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries on the example of the Maritime Ministry on the basis of previously unpublished documents stored in the Russian state archive of the Navy and periodical press materials. The study of gender issues can be of scientific interest on the basis of its documents, as practically not in demand in research related to the women’s issue. As a result of the struggle of the public, there were some concessions on the part of the authorities related to the expansion of women’s access to fill certain positions in a number of areas that experienced a lack of certain qualifications, including public service, in the conditions of intensive bourgeois development. The article analyzes the legal acts regulating the work of women, especially in the public service. it is shown how the changes that took place in the Russian Empire influenced the transformation of the socio-economic situation of women in General, and, also, became a reflection of the social policy of the state. The article reveals the attitude of the heads of departments of the Ministry to the admission of women to the public service, as well as their opinion on the degree of necessity for the service itself in attracting women to it. The article deals with the arguments of men - heads of departments of the Ministry, related to the impact of women’s work on home life, on the family and on itself, which differed largely by philistine assessments, rather than progressive views. In fact, on the part of the authorities, concessions to women were more imaginary and forced than the result of an objective assessment of their equal opportunity to serve in the public system.

620 Рецензии/Reviews society that widened and became politicized in 19th century. Neither was “modern anti-Semitism” (Arendt 1967, 9 passim) synonymous to the hatred or envy of Jews; but rather, and these aspects Gilman overlooks, was motivated by the tensions between the state and different social classes, which invoked anti-Semitism “because the only social group which seemed to represent the state were the Jews” (Arendt 1967, 25). In other words, the objections against the sociopolitical aspects of Gilman’s book here are (i) that his linear and rather one-dimensional view of history is insufficiently located in a particular view of the development of the German state, (ii) does not take into account the complex inter-class relations between Jews and the rest of society, (iii) and actually tells us little about “modern” forms of antiSemitism . Otherwise, of course, Freud, Race, and Gender is an original and highly informative work. I am sure Freud would have read it with interest. Francis KING А. П. Ненароков. Последняя эмиграция Павла Аксельрода. Москва: АИРО-ХХ, 2001. 166 с. ISBN: 5-88735-085-7. Pavel Aksel’rod (1850-1928) was one of the founders of Russian Marxism, and the most important ideologue of Menshevism from 1903 until the 1920s.Although he has not received the same attention from historians as Lenin,Trotsky, Plekhanov, or even Martov, he was the subject of one full-length study published in 1972 – Abraham Ascher’s Pavel Axelrod and the Development of Menshevism. Ascher’s account was a model political biography, but was weighted heavily toward the pre-Revolutionary period. Al’bert Nenarokov’s short book, which concentrates on Aksel’rod’s ideas and activities after he left Russia for the last time in August 1917, now provides a useful complement to Ascher’s classic monograph. Nenarokov has been researching and writing on the history of the revolution for at least three decades and, following the collapse of the USSR, has been working on the history of Menshevism. This book is very much the fruit of his research in Western libraries and archives. It draws very heavily on Aksel’rod’s papers at the International Institute of Social History in Amsterdam, 621 Ab Imperio, 3/2004 and on the papers of the Menshevik archivist Boris Nikolaevsky at the Hoover Institution. The text contains extensive quotations from Aksel’rod’s letters and articles from the 1920s. By making this material more widely available, Nenarokov has made a valuable contribution to the historiography of Menshevism. Letters from Aksel’rod to the rightwing Menshevik A. N. Potresov in the 1920s, in which he sets out his criticisms of the official line, are reproduced verbatim in an appendix , as are Aksel’rod’s comments on Potresov’s critique of official Menshevism. Nenarokov’s book has no index, but it does contain helpful short biographical notes on the persons mentioned within it. Menshevik material up to 1920 or so is easy enough to find in Russian archives, but the records of the organization in exile, from 1920 to the 1960s, have remained in the West. As Nenarokov’s book shows, the West is not an incongruous location for those records. From its inception in the 1880s, Russian Marxism was part of the Westernizing trend in Russian social thought. It represented the far left of the Russian Westernizers, those who believed that capitalism and Western patterns of development were inevitable for Russia, and needed to be met with a powerful Western-style labor and socialist movement. Perhaps more than anyone else, Aksel’rod embodied this idea. He spent most of his adult life as a political exile, mainly in Switzerland. He imbibed the values and traditions of Western, especially German, social democracy , and was concerned above all to apply what he had learned to the Russian situation. Unusually, however, Aksel’rod had not come from the educated, cosmopolitan intelligentsia. He was born into a desperately poor, uneducated , and devout Jewish family, and managed to acquire a Russian education, up to university level, through a combination of sheer luck and hard work. His relentless pursuit of broader horizons, which in his early youth led him to reject the mental straightjacket of Orthodox Judaism, later led him to reject the backwardness of Russian society. As Nenarokov aptly...

The mountain peoples of the North Caucasus were forced to relocate to the Ottoman Empire in the mid-19th century as a result of the Russian Empire's deliberate strategy. The High Porte was also highly interested in relocating the highlanders to its domain. The article examines the process of Chechen and Ingush return to their homeland from the Ottoman Empire. The author focuses on the difficulties encountered by the re-emigrants, describ-ing the ways the highlanders resettled back home. In spite of the fact that resettlement flows con-tinued throughout the 1860s. The active phase of Chechen and Ingush emigration took place in 1865. Statistical data shows that the process of Chechen and Ingush return to their homeland was not widespread because there were no organized activities on the part of the Ottoman and Russian empires. Overall, it was a rather piecemeal, chaotic and spontaneous process that lasted through-out the 19th century. Some highlanders still managed to return to their former places of residence; others were settled in remote regions of the Russian Empire. However, many were forbidden to return to their homeland. In addition, the position of the official authorities of the two countries was quite clear – their return was undesirable. Those who remained in the Ottoman Empire subse-quently formed the basis of today's Vainakh diasporas in Turkey, Syria, and Jordan. The study is based on materials from the Russian archives.