Research Methods and Sociocultural Approaches in Second Language Acquisition

The Role of Consciousness in Second Language Acquisition Edina Torlakovi! (edina_@scs.carleton.ca) Institute of Interdisciplinary Studies; Cognitive Science, Carleton University 2214 Dunton Tower, 1125 Colonel By Drive Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6 Andrew Brook (abrook@ccs.carleton.ca) Institute of Interdisciplinary Studies; Cognitive Science, Carleton University 2216 Dunton Tower, 1125 Colonel By Drive Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6 Abstract In this paper we argue that in order to resolve the controversy in Second Language Acquisition research concerning whether or not direct instruction is needed for second language acquisition, we need to use a broader sense of ‘consciousness’ than is used by second language researchers. Block's classification of consciousness into Access and Phenomenal consciousness seems promising. We associate Phenomenal consciousness with explicit knowledge and suggest that explicit instruction is useful. It enhances linguistic competence. Introduction This paper addresses a question that is of great importance for Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research. The question is 'what should the role of consciousness in second language (L2) acquisition be?' It is important to answer this question in order to resolve one of the biggest debates in the field of SLA, namely whether or not direct instruction is necessary or even valuable in L2 acquisition. SLA researchers interested in consciousness should start by considering what others have to say about it. This is necessary to develop a comprehensive picture of consciousness. The debate in SLA needs to be informed by an adequate notion of what consciousness is. Only in this way can we reach an adequate view about its role. One place to start is to consider what is said about consciousness in philosophy. We will start by comparing the different definitions of consciousness used by SLA researchers and by philosophers. Next we will introduce the controversy over whether L2 learners need to be conscious of grammar rules to learn the target language. Then we will examine Block’s well-known distinction between access (A) consciousness and phenomenal (P) consciousness and where language, or more specifically second language, fits into this categorization. With this, we might be one step closer to understanding the role of consciousness in L2 learning/acquisition. Issues and Positions Definition(s) of Consciousness How do SLA theorists and philosophers think about consciousness? As it turns out, quite differently. Let us look at some of the similarities and differences. When SLA theorists talk about consciousness, they use the term in a quite narrow sense. Schmidt (1995), for example, points out that there are three different senses of the term 'consciousness' as it is used in SLA theory: levels of perception, noticing, and understanding. By contrast, philosophers have a broader understanding of the term. According to Clark (2001), the possibilities include wakefulness, self-awareness, availability for verbal report, availability for control of intentional action, and qualia. To determine if all these terms are discussing the same, complex entity, they need to be further defined. If one desires to apply concepts of one discipline to another (philosophy to SLA in this case), this is something that we need to know. According to Schmidt, ‘levels of perception’ could be defined as levels of a process of obtaining and perhaps processing information. Schmidt defines ‘noticing’ as rehearsal in short-term memory, while by ‘understanding’ he refers to rule understanding, i.e., grasping the meanings of rules and becoming thoroughly familiar with them. Definitions of the terms from Clark's list of possibilities might go as follows: wakefulness is defined as a state in which we are sensitive to our surroundings and in which we can process incoming information and respond to it appropriately. Self-awareness he defines as a capacity to represent ourselves and to be conscious of ourselves 'as distinct agents'. Availability for verbal report is the capacity to access our own inner states and to describe them using natural language, while qualia concerns how things feel to us. From the above, one can conclude that SLA theorists take consciousness to be something narrower than philosophers

Over the past few decades, the field of second language acquisition (SLA) has seen a remarkable increase of interest in the study of instructed second language acquisition (ISLA), which “investigates second language (L2) learning or acquisition that occurs as a result of teaching” (Loewen, 2014, p. 2). The ISLA literature shows that there is an array of pedagogical options that can be used to facilitate adult L2 learning, ranging from implicit to explicit techniques. Furthermore, the effectiveness of an instructional treatment seems to depend largely on the nature of the L2 feature (e.g., Ellis, 2002; Spada & Tomita, 2010). However, extant empirical studies have yielded rather mixed findings on the issue regarding which type of L2 feature benefits more from which type of instruction, rendering it difficult to provide straightforward guidance to L2 classroom teachers. There are several reasons for the disparities in research findings, such as differences in study designs, settings, learner characteristics, etc., but above anything else, the inconsistent findings can primarily be attributed to the varying conceptualizations of complexity. With an aim to enlighten future research in this line of inquiry, the present discussion emphasizes the need for a more integral definition of complexity.

Lourdes Ortega's "Understanding Second Language Acquisition" was first published by Routledge in 2008. Lourdes Ortega is an internationally renowned scholar in the field of second language acquisition and applied linguistics. Her work has been instrumental in advancing our understanding of the learning and acquisition of second languages. Lourdes Ortega’s Understanding Second Language Acquisition is an excellent resource for anyone interested in the study of second language acquisition (SLA). The book provides an in-depth exploration of the key concepts of SLA and offers a comprehensive overview of current research, theories, and approaches. It is a valuable resource for both language educators and students alike. In Understanding Second Language Acquisition, Ortega provides an in-depth analysis of the processes involved in SLA. She starts with a brief overview of the history of SLA and its theoretical foundations, then moves into a discussion of the most important issues and topics in the field. She examines the different approaches to SLA, including the use of language transfer, the role of input and output, the role of motivation, the importance of context, and the impact of interactional and individual learner variables. Ortega also covers the role of technology in language learning, the importance of assessment, and the implications of SLA research for language teaching and learning.

Reviewed by: Second language acquisition by Roumyana Slabakova Tania Ionin Second language acquisition. By Roumyana Slabakova. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016. Pp. xxi, 483. ISBN 9780199687275. $40. Introduction This book is a textbook of second language acquisition (SLA) written within the theoretical framework of the generative approach to SLA research. The intended readers are advanced undergraduate students and graduate students who have some background in linguistics, in particular in syntax and semantics. The text is intended first and foremost for students with a prior background in generative linguistics. While the main linguistic concepts are explained when they are introduced, such explanations are necessarily brief, and students with no prior background in linguistics would find the more technical parts of the text somewhat difficult to follow. However, students or other readers who have a general interest in language and/or language acquisition, but lack a background in generative linguistics, should still be able to follow the main concepts presented in the book. This textbook is quite unique in that, while its focus is on theoretical research on SLA, it explicitly makes the link to potential pedagogical relevance of the research findings. Brief summary The book consists of thirteen chapters, divided into three parts. Each chapter ends with a section of exercises; at the end of the book are a glossary, references, and an index. Part I, ‘Language’, provides a brief overview of the relevant background information that readers need to have in order to fully appreciate the rest of the book. Ch. 1, ‘Language architecture’, lays out the central argument of generative linguistics for the innateness of language and introduces the reader to several famous proposals on the structure of the language faculty. Ch. 1 then addresses the task faced by a second language learner and lays out the logic of the methodology used in generative SLA research. Ch. 2, ‘Language variation’, walks the reader through the history of the generative study of language variation, from principles and parameters through the minimalist program. Like Ch. 1, Ch. 2 ends by considering the implications of the theoretical linguistic research for the learning task of a second language learner. The goal of Ch. 3, ‘The psychological reality of language in use’, is to prepare the reader for later chapters that address second language processing by reviewing the central models and findings of the literature on language processing and psycholinguistics more generally. Part II, ‘Language acquisition’, has the goal of placing the study of SLA into the study of language acquisition as a whole by considering a number of different language-acquisition scenarios. The focus of this part is on the respective contributions of age of acquisition and of input quantity and quality to the task of language acquisition. Ch. 4, ‘The critical period hypothesis’, goes over the history of critical period studies and addresses the debate about the existence of critical or sensitive periods in SLA. This chapter also considers the role of input, bringing together a number of quite distinct phenomena, including variable input, comparisons between heritage speakers and second language learners, and variability among native speakers at different educational levels. Ch. 5, ‘First language acquisition, two first languages’, provides an overview of the process of first language acquisition; most of the chapter is devoted to monolingual first language acquisition, but the last section discusses simultaneous bilinguals, who form a natural link between monolinguals and adult second language learners. In Ch. 6, ‘Child second language, multilingual and heritage language acquisition, language attrition’, a variety of other types of language acquisition scenarios are discussed. Throughout this chapter, and especially in the last section, the focus is, once again, on the relative contributions of age of acquisition and input quantity and quality to the outcome of the language acquisition process. The position taken in this chapter, and [End Page e198] throughout the rest of the book, is that the effects of age can potentially be overridden by rich input, and that universal grammar remains active in SLA by adults. Part III, ‘Second language acquisition’, is the heart of the book. In addition to providing an overview of SLA research in the core areas of linguistics (with the one exception of...

Reviewed by: Second language acquisition processes in the classroom: Learning Japanese by Amy Snyder Ohta Junko Hondo Second language acquisition processes in the classroom: Learning Japanese. By Amy Snyder Ohta. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2001. Pp. 298. ISBN: 0805838007. $79.95. It has been more than a half-century since the concept of the ‘zone of proximal development’ (ZPD) was first introduced by Lev Vygotsky. In keeping with current movements in the field of second language acquisition (SLA), Amy Snyder Ohta situates classroom interaction within a sociocultural frame-work. Modifying the ZPD slightly from Vygotsky’s original model, she includes peer interlocutors as providers of cognitive apprenticeship. Consistent with other qualitative research in the field of SLA, she regards these peer interlocutors as not necessarily needing to be ‘more advanced’ than their fellow students in order to respond to the needs of second language (L2) learners in the classrooms. ‘Even true peers have different’ capabilities, and it is the nature of diverse interactive roles that enables peers to provide assistance. Applying sociocognitive perspectives, O also sheds light on the role of private speech in the course of the language acquisition for L2 learners. She discusses the function of private speech both from analytical perspectives and from an empirical view in the frame of foreign language (FL) classrooms. The author provides abundant evidence from classroom data to develop these theoretical viewpoints. The data regarding benefits from peer interactive tasks is classified into such categories as general development, grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, and interactional style. Her evidence indicates the presence of private speech in various forms in the FL classrooms, illustrated in a manner accessible to even a non-Japanese-speaking audience. One of the traditional focal points in SLA, feedback, is also examined. The author provides a tangible classification to categorize the rather broad umbrella term ‘corrective feedback’. According to her study, different types of feedback provide different opportunities for learners. Well-defined, sequential stages of listener response are provided although the number of subjects in the study is rather small (a total of four). The study indicates the existence of the acknowledgment of back-channeling in the beginning stages of learning FL and the individuality of output in such utterances. The book addresses a wide range of topics from the use of the first language (L1) and L2 in peer interaction to related pedagogical matters. The data on the use of L1 in the interaction is naturally connected to the topic of instructional design. The analysis of this data leads to a discussion regarding task design and task implementation. In this section, O puts the focus on the teacher as the agent with the potential to orchestrate the learning experience through task design and task allocations. The book presents a thorough analysis of classroom interaction data and provides resources for L2 researchers, FL field practitioners, and, in particular, teachers of Japanese. Junko Hondo Lancaster University Copyright © 2003 Linguistic Society of America

<p><em>Over the past few decades, the field of second language acquisition (SLA) has seen a remarkable increase of interest in the study of instructed second language acquisition (ISLA), which “investigates second language (L2) learning or acquisition that occurs as a result of teaching” (Loewen, 2014, p. 2). The importance of this subfield has particularly been emphasized for the sake of adult L2 learners, who, due to biological and cognitive constraints, have difficulty acquiring a target language (TL) solely based on naturalistic input (e.g., Han, 2004; Long, 1990). For this, ISLA research has suggested the utilization of focus on form (FonF), a pedagogical approach that attempts to engage learners’ metalinguistic attention in an otherwise solely meaning-based environment (Doughty & Williams, 1998; Long, 1991; Long & Robinson, 1998). According to Doughty and Williams (1998), FonF involves an array of pedagogical options, ranging from implicit techniques (e.g., input flood, input enhancement, and recasts) that attempt to attract leaners’ attention to form, to explicit techniques (e.g., processing instruction, consciousness-raising, and dictogloss) that attempt to direct their attention to form.</em></p>

Over the past few decades, the field of second language acquisition (SLA) has seen a remarkable increase of interest in the study of instructed second language acquisition (ISLA), which “investigates second language (L2) learning or acquisition that occurs as a result of teaching” (Loewen, 2014, p. 2). The importance of this subfield has particularly been emphasized for the sake of adult L2 learners, who, due to biological and cognitive constraints, have difficulty acquiring a target language (TL) solely based on naturalistic input (e.g., Han, 2004; Long, 1990). For this, ISLA research has suggested the utilization of focus on form (FonF), a pedagogical approach that attempts to engage learners’ metalinguistic attention in an otherwise solely meaning-based environment (Doughty & Williams, 1998; Long, 1991; Long & Robinson, 1998). According to Doughty and Williams (1998), FonF involves an array of pedagogical options, ranging from implicit techniques (e.g., input flood, input enhancement, and recasts) that attempt to attract leaners’ attention to form, to explicit techniques (e.g., processing instruction, consciousness-raising, and dictogloss) that attempt to direct their attention to form.

202LANGUAGE, VOLUME 68, NUMBER 1 (1992) to another discussion in Aitchison's chapter on psycholinguistics. The chapter on sociolinguistics by James Milroy & Leslie Milroy does not cross-reference the chapter by Martin Durrell on dialectology, and vice versa. These are minor flaws, though, in a very useful and welcome contribution to the basic reference literature. REFERENCES Bright, William (ed.) 1992. Oxford international encyclopedia of linguistics. 4 vols. New York & Oxford: Oxford University Press. Crystal, David. 1987. The Cambridge encyclopedia of language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hanks, William F. 1989. Texts and textuality. Annual Review of Anthropology 18.95— 127. Newmeyer, Frederick J. (ed.) 1988. Linguistics: The Cambridge survey. Vol. I, Linguistic theory: Foundations; vol. II, Linguistic theory: Extensions and implications ; vol. IH, Language: Psychological and biological aspects; vol. IV, Language: The sociocultural context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ogden, C. K., and I. A. Richards. 1956. The meaning of meaning. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Department of Anthropology[Received 24 January 1991 ; University of Arizonarevision received 12 March 1991.] Tucson, AZ 85721 Linguistic theory in second language acquisition. Edited by Suzanne Flynn and Wayne O'Neil. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1988. Pp. xii, 443. Cloth $79.00. Reviewed by Sara Thomas Rosen, University of Kansas Linguistic theory in second language acquisition (LTSLA) contains papers presented at the Conference on Linguistic Theory and Second Language Acquisition held at MIT in the Fall of 1985. The purpose of the conference, and of the book, was to relate the principles and parameters view of the representation of language to the representation and acquisition of a second language. The value of the book lies in placing the field of second language acquisition within theoretical linguistics. On a strong theory of the innateness of the principles of grammar (as espoused in, e.g., Chomsky 1986), much knowledge of language is not, and indeed cannot be, learned: because the core universal principles of grammar are part of our biological endowment, they need not be learned and cannot be broken or violated. Further, what is learned includes the settings ofa limited number ofparameters. Thus, a major portion oflearning a first language consists of determining the correct values of innately defined parameters. The main questions addressed in LTSLA concern the availability of this innate universal core to an adult second language learner. Is universal grammar (UG) available in any form to the second language learner, or must the learner resort to nonlinguistic cognitive mechanisms in order to learn a second language? The reader quickly finds that the answers to these questions are quite subtle and complex, and the evidence does not resoundingly favor one view or the other. REVIEWS203 In the introductory chapters to the book, Flynn & O'Neil, Ken Hale, and Frederick J. Newmeyer & Steven H. Weinberger outline the main questions the field of second language acquisition has faced and place them within a UG framework. The two prominent theories for addressing these questions are (i) contrastive analysis, which posits the transfer offeatures or parametric settings from the speaker's first language (Ll) to the second language (L2), and (ii) creative construction, which holds that the L2 learner reverts to UG and creates from scratch the features or parameter settings of the second language. Most chapters in LTSLA examine these two hypotheses (e.g. the papers by Flynn, Harald Clahsen, Irene Mazurkewich, Lydia White, Michael Sharwood Smith, Juana M. Liceras, J. W. Gair, Liliane Haegeman, Sascha W. Felix, Ellen Broselow, and Barbara Lust). The general approach is to choose a parameter P of UG for which the setting differs in speakers' Ll and L2, and to examine the L2 acquisition of constructions affected by P. With respect to the two prevailing theories of L2 acquisition, the various authors consider whether the L2 acquirer copies the setting of P from Ll to L2 (contrastive learning, or transfer), or whether the acquirer reverts to the unmarked setting of P, and proceeds from there (creative construction). In studying the availability of UG to the L2 learner, Flynn examines the acquisition of the values of the head parameter and of anaphora, Mazurkewich and White each argue for a markedness hierarchy in L2 acquisition similar to that in Ll acquisition. Clahsen presents evidence from word order in German...

The field of second language acquisition (SLA), a relatively new field of academic study, traces its roots only to the second half of the last century. The field of SLA has roots in various disciplines and areas of study, including the fields of child first language (L1) acquisition, linguistics, psychology, and language pedagogy. Thus, SLA has moved well beyond a one-sided focus on learner internal mechanisms, be they linguistic or cognitive. A great deal of SLA research has concentrated on differences between L1 and second language (L2) acquisition in terms of ultimate attainment. Some SLA researchers argue that learning is based on experience of language usage. More recent SLA research conducted within a cognitivist approach has been designed to provide online measures of processing and interpretation of the L2 and has thus shifted somewhat away from the analysis of naturalistic corpora.

Reviewed by: Spanish Second Language Acquisition: State of the Science Yvonne Lam Lafford, B.A., & Salaberry, R. (Eds.). (2003). Spanish Second Language Acquisition: State of the Science. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. Pp. 344, $39.95 US (paper). Spanish Second Language Acquisition gathers together in one volume numerous studies on the acquisition of Spanish as a second language. While several books exist that survey the field of second language acquisition (SLA) in general (e.g., Gass & Selinker, 2001; Doughty & Long, 2003), none has focused on the Spanish language. As interest in learning Spanish grows, an increasing number of studies have examined learners of Spanish, and Spanish SLA has become a sub-field with its own fora for publication (e.g., the proceedings of the annual Conference on the Acquisition of Spanish and Portuguese and the applied linguistics section of Hispania). However, these publications are limited to specific issues; only Lafford (2000) has attempted to present an overview of the many varied areas of research within Spanish SLA. This book thus fills a noticeable gap in SLA at a time when interest in learning Spanish is increasing. Spanish Second Language Acquisition is designed as a reference tool for SLA researchers, graduate students, and second/foreign language teachers. The editors also suggest that it might be used as a textbook for a graduate course on Spanish SLA, as some background knowledge of linguistics (and, this reviewer would like to add, some basic knowledge of SLA) is needed. While the editors acknowledge the futility of trying to present an exhaustive survey of Spanish SLA studies, the amount of information collected in this volume is still impressive. The major themes studied by Spanish SLA researchers are all represented in this book, as are some less-studied topics such as pragmatic and discourse competence. The authors of each chapter have research experience in the area they discuss and are thus able to provide a detailed account of what has been done, where the current research stands, and what issues remain to be examined in the future – the three questions that guide every chapter. Spanish Second Language Acquisition is divided into three parts. The first part, 'Linguistic Topics: Products,' examines the acquisition of specific structures of Spanish, such as phonology (chap. 1 by A.R. Elliott); past tense and aspect (chap. 2 by S. Montrul and R. Salaberry); use of complex syntactic structures and the subjunctive (chap. 3 by J.G. Collentine); object pronouns (chap. 4 by J.F. Lee); lexicon (chap. 5 by Lafford, Collentine, and A.S. Karp); and pragmatic and discourse competence (chap. 6 by D. Koike, L. Pearson, and C. Witten). Some of these chapters are more specific to Spanish than others, depending on [End Page 592] how much research has been done on the topic. For instance, tense/aspect morphology, the subjunctive, and object pronouns have been popular areas of study in Spanish SLA, while phonology, lexicon, pragmatics, and discourse have received less attention. The authors of these latter chapters thus survey their topic in general and apply data from Spanish where available. The editors are to be commended for not limiting the overview to structures that have been well studied in Spanish SLA; by including less-examined topics, they have highlighted areas where research is lacking. The second part of Spanish Second Language Acqusition, 'Theoretical Perspectives: Processes,' focuses on the different models of language development that have informed SLA research, namely generative grammars (chap. 7 by L. Sánchez and A.J. Toribio), cognitive approaches (chap. 8 by P. Dussias), and sociocultural perspectives (chap. 9 by M. Antón, F.J. DiCamilla, and J.P. Lantolf). The authors first provide a summary of how these approaches have accounted for SLA in general, then focus on studies involving Spanish that were carried out within these frameworks. These three chapters would perhaps be better placed at the beginning of the book, as some of the studies in the section on linguistic products make reference to these models. For instance, both chapter 2 and chapter 4 refer to generative perspectives on tense/aspect morphology and clitics, so it might be useful for the reader to have a general understanding of these perspectives before...

This article argues for a reconceptualization of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research that would enlarge the ontological and empirical parameters of the field. We claim that methodologies, theories, and foci within SLA reflect an imbalance between cognitive and mentalistic orientations, and social and contextual orientations to language, the former orientation being unquestionably in the ascendancy. This has resulted in a skewed perspective on discourse and communication, which conceives of the foreign language speaker as a deficient communicator struggling to overcome an underdeveloped L2 competence, striving to reach the “target” competence of an idealized native speaker (NS). We contend that SLA research requires a significantly enhanced awareness of the contextual and interactional dimensions of language use, an increased “emic” (i.e., participant‐relevant) sensitivity towards fundamental concepts, and the broadening of the traditional SLA data base. With such changes in place, the field of SLA has the capacity to become a theoretically and methodologically richer, more robust enterprise, better able to explicate the processes of second or foreign language (S/FL) acquisition, and better situated to engage with and contribute to research commonly perceived to reside outside its boundaries.

This article argues for a reconceptualization of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research that would enlarge the ontological and empirical parameters of the field. We claim that methodologies, theories, and foci within SLA reflect an imbalance between cognitive and mentalistic orientations, and social and contextual orientations to language, the former orientation being unquestionably in the ascendancy. This has resulted in a skewed perspective on discourse and communication, which conceives of the foreign language speaker as a deficient communicator struggling to overcome an underdeveloped L2 competence, striving to reach the “target” competence of an idealized native speaker (NS). We contend that SLA research requires a significantly enhanced awareness of the contextual and interactional dimensions of language use, an increased “emic” (i.e., participant‐relevant) sensitivity towards fundamental concepts, and the broadening of the traditional SLA data base. With such changes in place, the field of SLA has the capacity to become a theoretically and methodologically richer, more robust enterprise, better able to explicate the processes of second or foreign language (S/FL) acquisition, and better situated to engage with and contribute to research commonly perceived to reside outside its boundaries.

Cognitive Individual Differences in Second Language Processing and Acquisition contains 14 chapters that focus on the role of cognitive IDs in L2 learning and processing. The book brings together theoretical and methodological approaches to the study of cognitive IDs, as well as empirical studies that investigate the mediating role of cognitive IDs in various linguistic domains. Chapters include contributions from researchers working within second language acquisition (SLA), psycholinguistics, and cognitive psychology, sharing a common interest in the application of cognitive IDs to their respective areas of study. The interdisciplinary understanding of cognitive IDs presented in this book makes the book of interest to a wide readership of graduate students, faculty members, and academic researchers in the fields of SLA, psycholinguistics, cognitive psychology, and education.

Language can be regarded as a carrier of culture. In the process of second language acquisition, cultural differences are the main factors causing learning disabilities. The cultures of various nationalities have both similarities and differences. In the process of intercultural communication or foreign language teaching and acquisition, the phenomenon of cultural transfer is widespread. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to draw a general conclusion through a questionnaire survey of nearly 100 college students, and on this basis, exploring the different forms and various elements of cultural migration in the process of second language acquisition and the cultural transfer to inspire the teachers and students in the second language teaching and acquisition process.

Teachability and Learnability across Languages addresses key issues in second, foreign and heritage language acquisition, as well as in language teaching. Focusing on a Processability Theory perspective, it brings together empirical studies of language acquisition, language teaching, and language assessment. For the first time, a research timeline for the role of instruction in language learning is presented, showing how the field of second language acquisition (SLA) research has developed over the last four decades since Pienemann’s work on learnability and syllabus construction over the 1980s. The book includes studies of child and adult second as well as foreign language acquisition research, covering a wide range of target languages including English, German, Hungarian, Japanese, Norwegian, Polish, Spanish, Swedish, and Turkish. In addition, future extensions of PT are discussed. This volume is designed for advanced students in international programs of SLA and Applied Linguistics as well as for SLA researchers and second and foreign language teachers.