Replication data for: Preferences and Biases in Educational Choices and Labour Market Expectations: Shrinking the Black Box of Gender

This study is an investigation into the career aspirations and expectations of 62 second generation, Afro-Carribean, young women. The belief that, in a meritocratic society, the occupational outcomes of the pupils should be a reflection of their educational achievements, regardless of class, race, or gender, is subject to critical appraisal. Investigations conducted in two South London Schools, over a period of 18 months, explored the occupational choice processes of 198 male and female pupils aged between 15-18 years. The results of the investigation suggest that the higher (in terms of social class) and distinct aspirations of young black women can be explained by their historically specific and culturally unique experience of the labour market. Young black womens' particular expectations of the labour market are characterised, in the main, by a cultural disposition that supports female labour market participation. This participation, however, takes place within the limited opportunities afforded by a racially and sexually segregated labour market. The subjective rationalising of labour market limitations explains, in part, the distinct qualities that characterise young black womens' career choices. Other evidence suggested that these distinct qualities also owed much to the west Indian female experience of schooling. Schools were seen to play a crucial part in both structuring and restricting black female occupational aspirations and expectations. Access to vital career information, active discouragement and discrimination, poor educational standards, leading to poor qualifications, were some of the material obstacles encountered by young black working class women when making their career choices. In conclusion, the evidence suggests that, whatever the educational level or labour market disposition of these young black women, their occupational location is subject to a variety of factors, in particular, labour market structures and educational resources. Inequalities based on race, gender, and class remain an integral feature of this society in spite of its ideology of meritocracy.

School attendance and the perceived value of formal education: Evidence from Tanzania

Willingness to compete has been found to predict individual and gender differences in educational choices and labor market outcomes. We provide further evidence for this relationship by linking Swiss students' Baccalaureate school (high school) specialization choices to an experimental measure of willingness to compete. Boys are more likely to specialize in math in Baccalaureate school. In line with previous findings, competitive students are more likely to choose a math specialization. Boys are more likely to opt for competition than girls and this gender difference in competitiveness could partially explain why girls are less likely to choose a math-intensive specialization.

The educational expansion of the last decades has broadened access to higher education. Especially girls caught up with boys in their educational attainments (DiPrete and Buchmann 2013). Whether educational inequalities by social origin decreased is less clear. Moreover, there is evidence that this trend might be gender specific: Becker and Muller (2011) show that the effects of social origin on educational outcomes remained strong for boys but less so for girls. At the same time, improved education for women has not translated into equal work opportunities for men and women (Blau and Kahn 2016). So far, in research on educational transitions and/or labour market inequalities, effects of social origin and gender have rarely been studied jointly (for an exception see Rivera and Tilcsik 2016). The aim of our research is to fill this gap and better understand the mechanisms that lead to differences in occupational outcomes at the intersection of social origin and gender by considering different pathways from compulsory education into the labour market. Theoretically, we combine two lines of argumentation: First, we draw on the literature on primary and secondary effects of origin (Bourdieu and Passeron 1971; Boudon 1974; Breen and Goldthorpe 1997). Second, we assume that the horizontal gender segregation by field of study, vocational education and training (VET), and occupation (Barone and Schizzerotto 2011; Charles and Bradley 2009; Gabay-Egozi et al. 2014) can translate into vertical stratification (for Switzerland see for example: Imdorf and Hupka-Brunner 2015; Hupka-Brunner et al. 2011; Zimmermann 2012). Furthermore, we pursue a life-course perspective to identify cumulative advantages or disadvantages over the educational trajectory (Sackmann 2007, Chapter 6). In order to investigate this empirically, we use data from the TREE (Transitions from Education to Employment) panel study that follows a large sample of Swiss PISA 2000 participants in their transition from education to their labour market position at age 30 (nine data collection waves, 2001–2014). In a first step, we employ sequence analysis to identify relevant clusters of sequences of education and job episodes of the respondents. Then, we conduct regression analysis to determine how these types of educational pathways influence job outcomes depending on social origin and gender. Classifying the pathways using sequence analysis allows us to reduce the complexity of individual life courses without sacrificing the strength of panel data. Preliminary results show, first, that educational pathways differ by social origin and gender. The higher the social status of the parents, the more likely it is that children pass through one of the academic pathways. Similarly, women more often to run through an academic track, whereas men more frequently complete vocational training. Second, these different trajectories lead to unequal occupational status. Net of the educational trajectory also a significant effect of social origin remains. Finally, gender effects on job outcomes are specific to educational trajectories, indicating that they result from horizontal segregation.

The present work studies the professional expectations of male and female university students by focusing on gender differences and examining the impact of previous educational choices and parents’ socio-economic background. A questionnaire filled out by newly-enrolled university students (n = 1979; 1214F) included scales on desired professional fields, preferred characteristics and negative aspects of a future profession, salary expectations. Differences linked to gender stereotypes and consistent with educational choices were hypothesized; in addition, we expected a differential influence of mother/father professional prestige on sons/daughters professional expectations. Main results show that male students privilege technical and sports/military areas of interest, whereas female students favor socio-psycho-educational, humanistic-literary, health and social care areas. Girls think it is important to find a job in line with their personal interests and studies, whereas boys have a more instrumental view of their future job. Gender differences are more contained as regards negative aspects, especially effort and precarious work, while salary expectations differ widely. The father professional prestige exerts a greater influence than the mother ones, whose influence is moderate and limited to the daughters. The effects of the traditional gender roles still persist, and they continue to influence occupational expectations and contribute to limit the gap reduction between men and women in the labor market. Keywords: professional expectations, educational choices, gender inequality, gender role.

Standard observed characteristics explain only part of the differences between men and women in education choices and labor market trajectories. Using an experiment to derive students’ levels of overconfidence, and preferences for competitiveness and risk, this paper investigates whether these behavioral biases and preferences explain gender differences in college major choices and expected future earnings. In a sample of high ability undergraduates, we find that competitiveness and overconfidence, but not risk aversion, is systematically related with expectations about future earnings: individuals who are overconfident and overly competitive have significantly higher earnings expectations. Moreover, gender differences in overconfidence and competitiveness explain about 18% of the gender gap in earnings expectations. These experimental measures explain as much of the gender gap in earnings expectations as a rich set of control variables, including test scores and family background, and they are poorly proxied by these same control variables, underscoring that they represent independent variation. While expected earnings are related to college major choices, the experimental measures are not related with college major choice.

Standard observed characteristics explain only part of the differences between men and women in education choices and labor market trajectories. Using an experiment to derive students' levels of overconfidence, and preferences for competitiveness and risk, this paper investigates whether these behavioral biases and preferences explain gender differences in college major choices and expected future earnings. In a sample of high ability undergraduates, we find that competitiveness and overconfidence, but not risk aversion, is systematically related with expectations about future earnings: individuals who are overconfident and overly competitive have significantly higher earnings expectations. Moreover, gender differences in overconfidence and competitiveness explain about 18% of the gender gap in earnings expectations. These experimental measures explain as much of the gender gap in earnings expectations as a rich set of control variables, including test scores and family background, and they are poorly proxied by these same control variables, underscoring that they represent independent variation. While expected earnings are related to college major choices, the experimental measures are not related with college major choice.

Standard observed characteristics explain only part of the differences between men and women in education choices and labor market trajectories. Using an experiment to derive students' levels of overconfidence, and preferences for competitiveness and risk, this paper investigates whether these behavioral biases and preferences explain gender differences in college major choices and expected future earnings. In a sample of high-ability undergraduates, we find that competitiveness and overconfidence, but not risk aversion, are systematically related with expectations about future earnings: Individuals who are overconfident and overly competitive have significantly higher earnings expectations. Moreover, gender differences in overconfidence and competitiveness explain about 18 percent of the gender gap in earnings expectations. These experimental measures explain as much of the gender gap in earnings expectations as a rich set of control variables, including test scores and family background, and they are poorly proxied by these same control variables, underscoring that they represent independent variation. While expected earnings are related to college major choices, the experimental measures are not related with college major choice.

People's concern about their relative status is regarded as an explanation to the Easterlin paradox, which reports that happiness has not increased despite continued growth in average income. The strength of concerns about relative position varies across people. First, we examine the socio-demographic characteristics and values that lead to a strong relative concern. And then we comprehensively investigate differences in financial outcomes, health, happiness, and behaviors by the degree of relative concern. In particular, Korea is an appropriate country for this study as Koreans have experienced rapid economic growth and there exists severe status race in their education system and labor market. Using data from our experimental survey of 3,000 Koreans, we examine their preference for positional goods and behaviors regarding herding, status seeking, and altruism. Our results show that those who have stronger relative concerns are more likely to live in upscale districts and place economic values above non-pecuniary values, and, in reality, they have better financial outcomes. They also exhibit higher tendencies of overconsumption and conspicuous consumption. Their health, however, is worse than others, specifically in regards to psychological health. Moreover, overall happiness and satisfaction in every dimension are proved to be lower for those who have stronger relative concerns. In a series of hypothetical situations of our survey, they consistently show higher inclinations toward status race and herding but lower degrees of altruism or sympathy. As for policy implications, we discuss the following issues. First, we show Koreans' diagnoses of the reasons for their unhappiness and examine how relative concern affects such diagnoses. Second, we discuss government intervention to remedy positional externalities based on our survey results about people's perceived positionality of selected goods that have a negative influence on others' welfare. Third, we show that Koreans' relative concerns do not necessarily arise from their materialistic values and they are undergoing transformation of individual values toward post-materialism, which makes a room for remedial change of institutions that have led excessive social comparisons and competitions. Fourth, we discuss policy directions for reducing negative effects of social comparison in the context of contemporary Korea focusing on the education system and labor market reform. Last but not least, we suggest some examples of nudge ideas using people's relative concern for the whole society and the motivation of self-improvement via social comparison, which implies that relative concern can be made good use of as well.

This thesis presents an analysis of a range of social, psychological and motivational factors which accounted for the inequitable representation of females in Computer Science (CS) courses in both the Australian (AU) and Taiwanese (TW) educational contexts. It draws on the literature on educational and vocational achievement related choices and decision-making to identify the key factors and how they influence males and females in making educational choices in their respective educational contexts. A mixed methods approach was chosen, using surveys for gathering the general characteristics of the undergraduates studying CS and non Computer Science (NCS) courses by educational context during the first phase (Phase 1), then interviews to examine in more detail the reasons for individuals’ course participation in the second phase (Phase 2). Results of surveys (Phase 1: AU=106, TW=52) and interviews (Phase 2: AU=7, TW=10) were analysed and presented by gender, group membership (CS and NCS) and educational context. This research offers a cross-national insight into the reasons behind females’ participation and non-participation in CS courses in two different educational contexts, which is not captured in the existing literature. The study found that an interest—enjoyment value attached to IT and/or CS encouraged Australian students to pursue CS courses. In contrast, Taiwanese students’ high self-efficacy beliefs in mathematics and programming skills encouraged their choice of CS courses. However, Taiwanese students’ course selection was dependent on the attainment value they attached to attending particular institutions, whether or not in CS. Stereotypical notions about CS related courses and careers were found to have discouraged both Australian and Taiwanese NCS females from enrolling in CS courses. This thesis concludes that although the trend of inequitable female representation in tertiary CS courses exists internationally, including in Australia and Taiwan, the factors accounting for the gender imbalance in CS vary across countries. Therefore, the strategies to address the issue of gender inequity should also reflect these differences across countries. Recommendations for the Australian context call for schools to re-consider the nature of the tasks provided in IT classrooms. As for the Taiwanese context, building female confidence in general IT learning through pre-tertiary and on-going programs, as well as instituting positive discrimination for females in CS course enrolment in Taiwanese universities, may increase the likelihood of Taiwanese females studying CS courses. Females in both contexts should be provided with broader and more accurate information regarding CS courses and careers rather than being left ill-informed with stereotypical perceptions of CS and thus choosing NCS courses. An understanding of the motivational and discouraging factors in females’ participation in CS courses in both the Australian and Taiwanese contexts provides a starting point for tackling the gender imbalance in the CS field in both contexts.

There has been a substantial convergence in the educational systems of many countries.' Starting with different educational backgrounds, political systems, and economies, both advanced and developing countries have developed similar educational ideologies, institutions, and curricula. One link among some common developments is vocationalism-the orientation of education around preparation for labor markets. In both advanced countries and LDCs, there has been a tendency to consider specific skill training, especially secondary-level vocational education, to be the principal manifestation of vocationalism. This conception is too narrow: every level of schooling, including the university, has become suffused with vocational goals, differentiated along vocational lines, and judged by vocational criteria. To understand the power of vocationalism, it is important to examine the full range of its consequences. In the first part of this article I will discuss different manifestations of vocationalism-understood as specific skill training-in both advanced countries and LDCs. The second section examines some larger consequences of vocationalism, especially its role in educational inflation and in defining the social roles of education. A finding common to many countries is that, despite claims of economic "relevance," vocationalized approaches prove to have little economic justification, fail to resolve the problems that they are designed to address, and generate new problems for education systems. The final section hypothesizes why, given these discouraging findings, vocational solutions to educational and economic problems continue to surface.

This paper studies educational choices in a signaling setting in segmented labor markets. We show that in the presence of heterogeneous working ability imperfectly correlated with schooling costs, equilibria characterized by overeducation may arise. The quality of education is crucial in determining the extent of this phenomenon conditional on labor market features. To find evidence of the main implications of the model we use data of Italian graduates merged with the CIVR data set and disaggregated by geographical areas. We find that overeducation is strongly determined by university quality and by other variables that characterize the individual's socioeconomic background. In particular, the impact of education quality on educational mismatch appears to be higher in less developed areas.

This research takes a close look at both the higher education system and the labour market in Lebanon. The aim is to identify, categorize and understand the main factors that affect at a first stance the Lebanese youth choices at the higher education level and at a second stance the aspects that distress the graduates' integration within the labour market and type of labour market. The research adopts a socio-economic approach and reflects a triangular perspective considering the bodies forming and shaping the system: the legislators, the practitioners and the clients. Qualitative and quantitative approaches are used to analyse and determine what shapes the higher education choices and what affects the pace of transition to the labour market. The aim is to propose based on the findings a specific model for the Lebanese case and validate (or not) international theories for small economies.

This dissertation compiles three complete and allied papers, focusing children’s schooling and health with special emphasis on parental attitudes and gender bias. The first paper examines the effects of the Female Secondary School Stipend Program (FSSSP) in Bangladesh on the schooling of girls, and its subsequent impact on the education of their younger siblings. We find that the education of older siblings has a positive effect on the schooling of younger siblings, and that the effect is slightly greater in magnitude on younger brothers than on younger sisters. When we address the endogeneity of education of older siblings, we find that the gender composition of older siblings generally has no effect on the schooling attainments of younger siblings. The results indicate a 10 per cent increase in the schooling of younger siblings due to the FSSSP. The results suggest that stipend programs could bring both short- and long-term gains, not only via direct benefits to the affected children, but also via indirect benefits to their siblings. The second paper identifies parental attitude towards different-gendered children using an experimental approach. The study was conducted in villages of two districts in Bangladesh, with randomly selected households that had at least two school-aged children (6-18 years) of different genders. In the experiment employed for the study, parents in the households were given an endowment to benefit an anonymous girl or boy at a local or nearby school. The households were randomly assigned to one of four mutually exclusive groups that corresponded to different experiment conditions. The results suggest that there is no systematic inherent bias in parental attitude towards the gender of a child, neither father nor mother is systematically biased for/against the gender of a child, and no significant differences are found between father’s and mother’s behaviors. We also find that joint decisions elicit more biased choices compared to individual choices, but again find no systematic bias toward one gender or the other. The results suggest that subjects revealed their true preferences under the experimental set-up. The third paper investigates how parents’ inherent gender bias is associated with their decisions regarding the schooling and health of their own son and daughter. We focus on five indicators for education, viz., years of schooling, grade for age, enrolment status, education expenditure, and test score; and three indicators for health, viz., incidence of illness, and access to formal treatment and treatment cost, in the case of illness. Although the game outcome suggests that on average there is no systematic inherent bias among parents, inherently biased parents nevertheless allocate resources in a discriminatory manner. The results suggest that boy-biased parents are more likely to enrol their sons in school and to spend more on their sons’ education, and that they are less likely to enrol their daughters in school and spend less on their daughters’ education. The health indicators suggest that boy-biased parents are less likely to seek formal treatment and tend to spend less when a daughter is sick.

We investigate the role of information frictions in the US labor market using a new nationally representative panel dataset on individuals’ labor market expectations and real- izations. We find that expectations about future job offers are, on average, highly predictive of actual outcomes. Despite their predictive power, however, deviations of ex post realizations from ex ante expectations are often sizable. The panel aspect of the data allows us to study how individuals update their labor market expectations in response to such shocks. We find a strong response: an individual who receives a job offer one dollar above her expectation subsequently adjusts her expectations upward by $0.47. The updating patterns we document are, on the whole, inconsistent with Bayesian updating. We embed the empirical evidence on expectations and learning into a model of search on- and off- the job with learning, and show that it is far better able to fit the data on reservation wages relative to a model that assumes complete information. The estimated model indicates that workers would have lower employment transition responses to changes in the value of unemployment through higher unemployment benefits than in a complete information model, suggesting that assuming workers have complete information can bias estimates of the predictions of government interventions. We use the framework to gauge the welfare costs of information frictions which arise because individuals make uninformed job acceptance decisions and find that the costs due to information frictions are sizable, but are largely mitigated by the presence of learning.