Repayment Expectation is Associated With Korean Middle School Male-identified Adolescents' Drinking Indirectly via Parental Psychological Control, Whereas Indebtedness is not.

We examined whether the cultural value of respect based on age was indirectly associated with adolescents’ drinking via parental psychological control and whether gender differences existed. Korean adolescents (N = 354, 13-16 years old, 207 female-identified) attending a middle school in Seoul participated in an innovative online survey. Measures included the Respect Based on Age Scale developed for this study, an established scale of parental psychological control, and drinking frequency in the past year. Structural Equation Modeling results revealed that respect based on age was positively associated with both dependency-oriented (DPC) and achievement-oriented psychological control (APC), which were in turn positively associated with drinking frequency. These results suggest that both respect based on age and parental psychological control may be risk factors for Korean adolescents’ drinking. We uncovered subtlety in the common belief that respect based on age pervades Korean culture, as Korean adolescents simultaneously held two contradictory beliefs: respect should be based on age and also should not be based on age. Moreover, female-identified adolescents felt more bound by the cultural value of respect based on age than did male-identified adolescents, and female-identified adolescents also felt more controlled by primary caregivers than did male-identified adolescents. When male-identified adolescents believed that respect did not come with age, they reported less APC than female-identified adolescents. These results highlight cultural and familial risk factors for Korean adolescents’ drinking and gender-based adolescent development in Korea.

The use of smartphones in adolescents can negatively impact their daily lives. When adolescents’ ability to control smartphone use is low, they could experience problematic smartphone use behavior (PSU). By internalizing control, parents play a crucial role in enhancing adolescents' self-control on smartphone use. Based on the controlling component of parenting, there are two types of parental control: parental structure and parental psychological control. Previous studies have found a relationship between parental psychological control and PSU. However, studies investigating the relationship between parental structure and parental psychological control simultaneously with PSU are limited. This study is important since parents found practicing those two types of parental control simultaneously. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effect of parental structure and psychological control on adolescents' problematic smartphone use. 219 adolescents aged 12-18 (M = 14.49 years) completed the Indonesian version of the Parental Structure Scale, Parental Psychological Control Scale, and Mobile Phone Problematic Use Scale questionnaires. Stepwise regression analysis shows that only parental psychological control predicts the increase of problematic smartphone use in adolescents. Our finding suggested that the type of parental control that emphasizes authority assertion, love withdrawal, and guilt induction is ineffective in decreasing problematic smartphone use in adolescents.

This study examined the effects of parental acceptance, psychological control, and behavioral control on children’s school adjustment and academic achievement, as well as the possible mediation effect of children’s self-regulation in those processes. To do so, we examined 388 upper-level elementary school students (mean age = 11.38 years) in South Korea. In addition, the study examined whether the influences of parental psychological and behavioral control on children’s school outcomes were consistent between Western and East Asian cultures. Children reported on perceived parental acceptance, psychological control, behavioral control, self-regulation, and their own school adjustment and academic achievement. The results showed that parental acceptance, psychological control, and behavioral control were not directly related to children’s school outcomes. Parental acceptance and behavioral control indirectly influenced the children’s school outcomes but were mediated by the children’s self-regulation. However, the mediation effect of self-regulation between psychological control and children’s school outcomes was not statistically significant. These results suggested that children’s self-regulation plays a more significant role vis-a-vis children’s school outcomes than the direct effects of parenting and that parental psychological control did not have a negative effect on South Korean children’s school outcomes.

Academic entitlement characterises students who expect positive academic outcomes without personal effort. The current study examined the relations of perceived parental warmth and parental psychological control with two dimensions of academic entitlement (i.e. entitled expectations and externalised responsibility) among college students. Psychology students participated by completing measures of perceived parenting and academic entitlement through an online survey system. Results demonstrated that perceived parental warmth was a negative predictor of externalised responsibility and parental psychological control was a positive predictor of externalised responsibility. Additionally, there was a warmth by control interaction such that parental psychological control was related to greater externalised responsibility only when combined with moderate to high parental warmth. For entitled expectations, both perceived parental warmth and psychological control were positive predictors. The findings suggest that parenting practices may play an important role in academic entitlement and highlight the need for further research to elucidate potential developmental pathways of academic entitlement.

Numerous studies have focused on the mental and behavioral problems or negative emotions of adolescents when examining the impact of parental control. However, limited research has explored the relationship between parental control and adolescents' future planning, neglecting the distinctions between parental psychological and behavioral control, as well as the significant roles of personal growth initiative and meaning in life. The present study aims to investigate the differential effects of parental psychological control and behavioral control on the future planning of rural adolescents in China. A sample of 909 individuals (13.60±0.93 years old, 470 boys and 439 girls) completed a self-report questionnaire anonymously. The study utilized the Adolescent Future Orientation Questionnaire, Parental Control Questionnaire, Adolescents' Personal Growth Initiative Scale, and Meaning in Life Questionnaire. The findings revealed that parental control significantly influenced the future planning of Chinese rural adolescents, with psychological control and behavioral control exerting distinct impacts in this process. Specifically, parental psychological control was found to have a direct negative effect on adolescents' future planning, while also exhibiting a positive influence due to the masking effect of meaning in life; it did not negatively affect adolescents' future planning through their personal growth initiative. On the other hand, parental behavioral control was observed to directly and positively impact adolescents' future planning, as well as positively influence it through the mediating role of personal growth initiative and the chain mediating role of personal growth initiative and meaning in life. These results suggest that the influence of parental control on adolescents' future planning is not a simple, singular mechanism, but rather a multi-layered and complex process, yielding mixed outcomes as a result of psychological control, behavioral control, and other factors. This complexity should be taken into consideration in educational practices and future research endeavors.

The main purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between marital conflict, parental control, and adolescents` anxiety. The participants were composed of 319 high school graders (of which 153 were boys and 165 were girls) from the Seoul area. They completed questionnaires on marital conflict, parental control, and adolescents` anxiety. The data were analyzed by means of Pearson`s correlation coefficients and regressions. It was observed that marital conflict (frequency/intensity/resolution/content) was positively correlated with adolescents` anxiety. Parental psychological control was also positively correlated with adolescents` anxiety. However parental behavioral control was negatively correlated with adolescents` anxiety. In addition marital conflict was positively correlated with parental psychological control in contrast with that of behavioral control. It was further found that parental psychological and behavioral control partially mediated the relationship between marital conflict and adolescents` anxiety. These results clearly indicate that parental control plays a crucial role in marital conflict and adolescents` anxiety.

Previous studies indicate that parental psychological control and behavioral control play crucial roles in the positive development of adolescents. However, little is known about the underlying mechanism of the associations between parental psychological control and behavioral control and positive youth development (PYD). The present study sought to examine the role of basic psychological needs satisfaction as a mediator of the association between parental psychological control and behavioral control and PYD. Two-wave longitudinal data were collected from a sample of 783 young Chinese adolescents (427 boys, Mage = 10.87, SDage = .94) who enrolled in three primary schools in Beijing, China. Results of structural equation modeling indicated that basic psychological needs satisfaction mediated the associations between parental psychological control and behavioral control and PYD six months later. Moreover, results of multiple-group invariance analysis indicated no gender differences in the indirect effects of parental psychological control and behavioral control on PYD six months later through basic psychological needs satisfaction. Implications for future research and practices for parents and school practitioners are discussed.

Middle childhood is considered a sensitive phase for the development of both dependency and achievement-related problems. In order to target efficient prevention and treatment, it is necessary to identify unique associations with possible precursors. This study hypothesized that children’s dependency-related problems (i.e., separation anxiety and generalized anxiety) would uniquely relate to parental dependency-oriented psychological control and that children’s achievement-related problems (i.e., extrinsic motivation and maladaptive perfectionism) would uniquely relate to parental achievement-oriented psychological control. The study included 180 elementary school children. Results showed that higher levels of children’s separation anxiety uniquely related to more parental dependency-oriented psychological control, while higher levels of children’s extrinsic motivation uniquely related to more parental achievement-oriented psychological control. Contrary to the expectations, higher levels of children’s maladaptive perfectionism were associated with both dimensions of parental psychological control, and children’s generalized anxiety was not associated with any dimension. Study implications are discussed.

Adolescents who perceive low levels of parental support or high levels of parental psychological control are at increased risk for developing loneliness. However, the association between parenting experiences and loneliness varies among adolescents. This study examined whether higher levels of DNA methylation in the glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1), a gene directly involved in stress-reactivity, moderated the association between parental support and psychological control and the development of loneliness in early adolescence. A sample of 622 Belgian early adolescents (55% girls, Mage T1 = 10.77 years, SDage T1 = 0.48) reported on loneliness annually for three waves (2017-2020). At Wave 1, perceived parental support and psychological control were assessed via questionnaires, and NR3C1 methylation via saliva samples. Latent growth curve models were estimated. Results revealed stronger associations between parental psychological control and initial levels of loneliness for adolescents with higher levels of NR3C1 methylation. In line with the diathesis-stress model, this finding suggests that the association between parental psychological control and adolescent loneliness may be stronger among individuals with higher NR3C1 methylation.

Despite the extensive research on parental psychological control, no study has explored the relation between parental and teacher psychological control, maladaptive perfectionism and learned helplessness (LH). The purpose of this study was to investigate (1) whether perceived teacher psychological control predicts positively LH, (2) whether perceived parental psychological control predicts maladaptive perfectionism, and (3) whether the association between perceived parental and teacher psychological control and LH is mediated by maladaptive perfectionism. In a sample of 433 participants, 268 females (61.9%) and 165 males (38.1%), ranged in age from 13 to 19 years ( M = 15.38, standard deviation (SD) = 1.18), it was found that teacher psychological control has a more relevant role in the prediction of LH than parental control. Moreover, maladaptive perfectionism was a full mediator of the relationship between perceptions of teacher psychological control and LH. These results extend previous studies on teacher psychological control and, for the first time, provide evidence for the relation with LH, identifying maladaptive perfectionism as a variable that accounts for the relation between teacher psychological control and LH.

The aim of the study was to explore the unique and common contributions of parental psychological control and family functioning to global life satisfaction among Italian adolescents while considering the type of parental psychological control: dependencyoriented and achievement-oriented. Two hundred fifty-five adolescents (104 boys and 151 girls) from 15 to 17 years of age (mean age = 15.98, SD = .76) completed self-report measures on perceived parental psychological control, dependency- and achievement-oriented, family functioning and global life satisfaction. Correlation analyses indicated that parental psychological control oriented to both dependency and achievement was negatively related to global life satisfaction, whereas global life satisfaction was significantly and positively related to diverse dimensions of family functioning, such as affective responsiveness and involvement, communication, and general healthy functioning. Regarding the predictive role of parental psychological control on global life satisfaction, both dependency- and achievement-oriented control predicted a low level of life satisfaction, whereas among family-functioning variables, only general healthy functioning and affective involvement predicted a high level of life satisfaction. Finally, data showed a significant effect of the interaction between achievement-oriented psychological control and two dimensions of healthy family functioning in predicting life satisfaction among adolescents, with family general functioning and affective involvement moderating the negative effects of parental psychological control on life satisfaction: at higher levels of parental achievement-oriented psychological control, life satisfaction tended to be higher when family general functioning and affective involvement were high

This study examined parental autonomy support and psychological control and their relations with child biobehavioral functioning. Participants included 238 Chinese parent-child dyads (M age-child = 8.38 years, 42.0% girls) in two cohorts (2013 and 2021). Parents in the 2021 cohort displayed higher levels of autonomy support and psychological control during the parent-child interaction than in the 2013 cohort. Parental psychological control was positively associated with emotion regulation and negatively associated with externalizing problems in the 2013 cohort, but not in the 2021 cohort. Parental psychological control was also negatively associated with vagal suppression in the 2021 cohort, but not in the 2013 cohort. The result suggests that sociocultural contexts may shape the display of parental behaviors and their significance for child development.

The transition to college is often a stressful time where individuals are launching from the family. Despite awareness of this crucial transitional period, few studies have examined the enduring influence of the family environment on emerging adult mental health. We utilized a stress process framework to examine the impact of an adverse family environment, which accounts for multiple dimensions of family processes including perceptions of the childhood family environment, lack of parental support, and parental psychological control, on emerging adult depressive symptoms. The study explores a process model mediated by self-efficacy and moderated by social provisions, using latent variable structural equation modeling with a sample of 154 college students from a large southeastern, United States University. As hypothesized by the stress process model, an adverse family environment was related to higher levels of emerging adult depressive symptomology indirectly through self-efficacy, such that a more aversive family environment was related to lower levels of self-efficacy and lower levels of self-efficacy were related to more depressive symptoms. Results also indicate that the presence of social provisions can alleviate the strain of an adverse family environment on an individual’s sense of self and mental health. Discussion of the importance of families and other forms of social support, during emerging adulthood, as well as implications for intervention timing and method are included.

Objective Adolescent nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) has become an alarming public health concern. Parental psychological control has been identified as a risk factor for NSSI in some western samples. However, the relationship between parental psychological control and NSSI remains unclear among Chinese adolescents. Furthermore, little is known about how parental psychological control affects NSSI. This study aims to examine a moderated serial mediation model of NSSI, revealing the mediating and moderating mechanisms underlying the relationship between parental psychological control and NSSI. Method A total of 953 Chinese secondary school students (47.7% females, mean age = 12.53 years, SD = 0.63) completed questionnaires of NSSI, parental psychological control, parent-related loneliness, depressive symptoms, and regulatory emotional self-efficacy. Results Parental psychological control was positively associated with NSSI. This association was mediated by parent-related loneliness and depressive symptoms independently. Also, it was serially mediated by parent-related loneliness and depressive symptoms. In addition, regulatory emotional self-efficacy moderated the indirect relationships between parental psychological control and NSSI. Conclusions Findings of this study shed light on how NSSI is affected by parental psychological control, parent-related loneliness, depressive symptoms, and regulatory emotional self-efficacy, and provide insights into the prevention and intervention measures targeting adolescent NSSI. HIGHLIGHTS Parental psychological control was positively associated with NSSI. Parent-related loneliness and depressive symptoms independently and serially mediated the association between parental psychological control and NSSI. Regulatory emotional self-efficacy moderated the indirect relationships between parental psychological control and NSSI.

Previous research demonstrates that aspects of parenting interact to influence child adjustment. We aimed to extend this research by examining parenting strategies associated with behavioral control, specifically sources of parental knowledge regarding child behavior (child disclosure, parental solicitation, parental control), as moderators of the relation between psychological control and relational and physical/verbal aggression. Our sample included 89 children (56% male), ages 9-12. Consistent with prior research on child adjustment, low child disclosure was the only source of parental knowledge associated with both relational and physical/verbal aggression. Moreover, parental solicitation moderated the association between psychological control and relational, but not physical, aggression. That is, at high levels of parental solicitation, psychological control and relational aggression were positively related, whereas at low levels of parental solicitation, psychological control and relational aggression were unrelated. Implications and future directions are discussed.