Religious Identity-Based Emotions and Interreligious Social Distance in Türkiye: An Experimental Study

We randomly vary religious identity salience in laboratory subjects to test how identity salience contributes to six hypothesized links from prior literature between religious identity and economic behavior. We find that religious identity salience makes Protestants increase contributions to public goods. Catholics decrease contributions to public goods, expect others to contribute less to public goods, and become less risk averse. Jews more strongly reciprocate as an employee in a bilateral labor market gift-exchange game. We find no evidence of religious identity salience effects on disutility of work effort, discount rates, or generosity in a dictator game.

A review of the literature concerning the relationship between religiosity and premarital sexual attitudes and behavior revealed inconsistencies in research findings and problems with methodology and operationalization of variables. A postal questionnaire to 527 16-18 year olds examined the associations between 6 models of religiosity (religious upbringing, denominational affiliation, ritual/behavioral, self-attitude/self-schema, and salience of religious identity) and personal sexual standards, attitudes towards sexually active others, virginal status, anticipation of sexual intercourse, and frequency of both coitus and noncoital sexual experiences over the previous year. A negative relationship between religiosity and a number of sexual attitudes and behaviors was observed, though nonsignificant relationships in the case of sexual experiences without intercourse suggested the maintenance of a technical virginity to accord with religious precepts. There was also some evidence that Catholic adolescents were more likely to be sexually active than non-Catholics when current religiosity was controlled for. The results lent strongest support to models which implicated self-conception either in terms of self-attitudes/self-schemas or the salience of religious identity. Implications of the study and suggestions for future research are outlined.

Religious identity is recognised as a neglected facet of diversity with important connections to work behaviour and other outcomes. We conduct a qualitative study interviewing 51 religiously identified participants from four occupational groups: Christian healthcare workers, Christian teachers, Jewish teachers, Christian lawyers and Christian bankers. Following thematic analysis of their experiences, we develop five themes characterizing dynamics of religious identity in the workplace. Findings shed new light on how employees negotiate their religious identity in the workplace including experiences related to “disclosing and discussing religious identity in the workplace”; “tactics in managing conflicting identities”; “relationships between self and others”; “influence of religious values on professional conduct”; and the “salience of religious identity”. The study makes two contributions to research on diversity and inclusion in the workplace. First, we find specific challenges that employees face when negotiating their own (or others) religious identity in the work place. Second, we identify how diversity within a person (intraindividual identity dynamics), between people (interpersonal relations) and in a group (group dynamics) contribute to the functioning of religious identity in the workplace.

This two-wave longitudinal study followed a cohort of young people in Northern Ireland (N = 124) to examine how the transition to university impacts on identity change. Drawing on Stryker's (1968, 1987) identity theory, we examined salience, affective and interactional commitment for five identities: family member, friend, student, national and religious identity. The relative salience of national and religious identities did not change over time, but an absolute increase in the salience of religious identity was indicated at Time 2. Regression analysis provided some support for identity theory but suggested a difference between Catholics and Protestants in relation to religious identity. The implications for the identities of young people in Northern Ireland, and, more generally, for identity theory are discussed.

Questions of political participation among different races are often applied to the theory of group consciousness. Despite knowledge of intersectional identities and their effects on political participation, religious identity in this discourse has gone largely unnoticed. This paper seeks to apply the theory of group consciousness to religion in hopes of understanding the salience of religious identity. Analyzing Latinos and their perspectives on immigration this paper asks the question: “do Latinos with differences in religious observation, have different perspectives on immigration?” By doing so, this study hopes to uncover the complex nature of intersectional identities and the multidimensional influences of religious group consciousness. This examination suggests that the salience of religious identity fluctuates based on indicators used when measuring religious observance through behavior, and affiliation.

Responding to Jackson and Joshi’s (2011) call for specific models of the effects of particular diversity types and against the backdrop of the rising desire for the public expression of religious identities in the workplace (Hicks, 2003), we develop a framework that systematically explores when and how the expression of diverse religious identities induces relational conflicts in organizational units. In developing this framework, we integrate the respective literatures on religion studies (e.g. Hicks, 2003), identity-disclosure (e.g. Ragins, 2008) and diversity within organizational groups (Jackson and Joshi, 2011). Our framework specifies three paths whereby the public expression of diverse religious identities can engender relational conflicts. As mediators, we discuss perceivers’ attribution of proselytism and religious discrimination, as well as identity threats. Moreover, we examine the moderating roles of actors’ and perceivers’ religious fundamentalism, perceivers’ religious identity salience and minority members’ attribution of majority members’ religious hegemonial claims. At the theoretical level, we delineate particularities of religious identity diversity that distinguish this diversity type from other deep-level diversity attributes. Concerning practical implications, we argue that it is important to not only foster self-expression, but also to be cognizant of the risks that the public expression of religious identities entails.

ABSTRACTSocial identity can affect perceptions of external threats and the type of response elicited to those threats. Religion is a social identity with eternal group membership and revered beliefs and values; thus, religious identity salience, religious commitment, and religious involvement may have implications for aggressive responses to perceived threats to a person’s religious identity. In a sample of 176 Christians, Muslims, and Jews, we investigated whether people respond aggressively to collective threat as a function of religious identity salience, religious commitment, and religious involvement. Religious commitment was positively related to anger only when religious identity was salient. Religious involvement was negatively related to anger and hostility only when religious identity was salient. Religious identity salience appears to act as a moderator by either enhancing perceptions of threat or by activating internal religious beliefs and values.

Survey data from Jews find that Jewish population density is positively related to rates of synagogue attendance and most other behavioral measures of religious commitment. We ask whether, after controlling for higher rates of religious practice in more Jewish areas, Jewish population concentration has its own separate independent negative effect on Jewish identity salience. Using the 2001 National Jewish Population Survey, we present three main findings. First, the simple correlation between population share and identity salience is positive. Second, after statistically controlling several key control variables, including level of Jewish practice, the overall direct effect of population share is negative. Third, we find that respondents who were raised Jewish but no longer consider themselves Jewish are more likely to reside in low Jewish population share areas. Taken together, our second and third main findings suggest that different kinds of “assimilation” are occurring in high versus low Jewish population share areas.

Faith-based colleges often navigate a complex terrain where religious convictions sometimes conflict with the presence of queer students on campus, leading to Title IX discrimination challenges. Within the legal and policy landscape, a critical aspect often overlooked by campus leaders is the provision of resources and support aimed at nurturing queer students’ religious identities. Pulling from a sample of n = 887 queer students, multilevel regression results showed that utilizing campus safety and financial aid services, joining an LGBTQ+ student organization, participating in intergroup dialogue, and engaging in religious discussions with other students may contribute to religious identity salience.

This paper provides an insight on the impact of religiosity and sustainability awareness on the campus impact sustainability. The nature of this study was to explore the relationships, and using the survey questionnaire for primary data collection. The research question for this research was “Do religiosity and sustainability awareness affecting the campus impact sustainability?” Convenience sampling technique was applied to sample more than 150 students at the Faculty of Business, Economics, and Accountancy, in Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS). Adaptation of three different questionnaires were used to construct the questionnaire of this research. General measures of religiosity refer to its intensity, salience, and importance in the individuals, and mostly are self-report on single item on the subjective importance of religion or the salience of religious identity. For better measurement in religiosity, the authors have adopted the Centrality of Religiosity Scale (CRS) questionnaire developed by Stefan Huber and Odilo W. Huber. The Scale is a set of 15 items measurement on centrality, importance or salience of religious meanings in personality. Four questions were developed to measure the awareness and concern of students about the environmental sustainability. Third part of the questionnaire is a 26-items questionnaire by McNulty. Apart from it, the authors have also included several demographic factors to investigate whether the gender and parent’s education level would influence the variables.Â

Claims that religion can influence ethical behavior in business are plausible to many people but problematic in light of existing research. Our analysis indicates that religious role expectations, internalized as a religious self-identity, can influence ethical behavior. However, relationships of religious role expectations to behavior are moderated by religious identity salience and religious motivational orientation. We conclude by discussing the influence of organizational context on religious identity salience and the need for innovative and interdisciplinary empirical research on religion and ethical behavior in organizations.

BackgroundReligion is an important ingroup characteristic for many people. For different reasons, people with different religious affiliations might prefer members of their religious outgroup. Previous studies have investigated perceptions of and behaviour toward religious ingroup and outgroup members in various contexts. The four studies presented here investigated whether competence and likeability ratings differ depending on the target’s and participant’s religious affiliations in a recruitment context. Two studies were conducted in Sweden, while the other two were conducted in the USA.MethodsParticipants in 4 studies rated a Christian, Muslim or atheist job applicant and a control applicant on 4 competence and 3 likeability items on 7-point Likert scales. The difference in ratings between the target applicant and control applicant was used to measure perceived competence and likeability of the target applicant. In the two latter studies, one in Sweden and one in the USA, participants also chose to hire either the target or the control applicant.ResultsOverall, participants in three studies rated control applicants as more likeable than target applicants. In the two US studies, targets were also rated as less competent than control applicants. Christian participants in the two US studies rated the Christian applicant as more likeable than both other targets. In the second US study, atheist participants rated Christians as less likeable than both other targets. In one of the Swedish studies, atheist participants rated the atheist applicant as more likeable than both other targets. The only significant difference in competence ratings between targets was made by Christian Swedes, who rated Muslim applicants as less competent than Christian applicants. The only significant difference in hiring decisions was that Swedish atheist participants hired Christians less often than they hired control applicants.ConclusionTogether, the results suggest that job applicants are sometimes viewed as more likeable if they belong to a religious ingroup rather than a religious outgroup, but that this only rarely translate to significant differences in competence ratings or hiring decisions.

Research has shown religion to be an important predictor of attitudes toward state punishment, yet religious identity has rarely been included in studies of public opinion toward felon disenfranchisement. In November 2018, voters in Florida passed Amendment 4, the “Voting Rights Restoration for Felons Initiative,” to re‐enfranchise Floridians who have completed all the terms of their felony sentences, excluding those convicted of murder or sexual offenses. This study centers on the potential relationship between religious identity, particularly for evangelical Protestants, and punitiveness by examining religious identity as a predictor of attitudes toward felon disenfranchisement. Using data from a 2018 statewide survey of likely Florida voters, this study examines the effect of religious identity and other sociodemographic factors, such as race, on attitudes toward felon disenfranchisement. Results demonstrate that probable voters who identify as evangelical Protestant are less supportive of Amendment 4 (versus non‐religious), controlling for other demographics previously found to be significant in the literature. The lack of support for voter re‐enfranchisement among evangelical Protestants suggests they take a more punitive stance on this issue. Our findings demonstrate the continued salience of religious identity and the need for its inclusion in future studies examining attitudes toward felon disenfranchisement.

There is little debate left about how important identity is in understanding political phenomenon. Whether it is in the study of social movements or ethno-nationalism at either the national (Holloway 2011) or international level (Gurr & Harff, 1994; Gurr, 2000; Fearon & Laitin, 2003), or even broader discussions of identity and culture in international relations (Patten, 2011) and international relations theory (Lapid & Kratochwil 1996, Wendt 1999), identity has continued to move to the center of the study of political phenomenon (Smith 2004). And while there may not be universal agreement on how best to operationalize identity across the array of research agendas that engage it (Abdelal et. al., 2006) as well as on-going debates about how exactly identity interacts and drives political action (Huddy, 2001), an effective vocabulary for the study of identity has emerged that centers on identity formation, identity salience, and identity mobilization. This vocabulary can be used with students to introduce them to the key aspects of identity as a political phenomenon. It is also is not hard to get students to recognize the importance of identity in the politics around them. Whether it is the partisan nature of American politics (Bartle 2009), the situation on the ground in Iraq (Dawisha, 2008) or Afghanistan (Riphenburg, 2005), or any of a wide range of 2 other national and international examples ( for example Johnson, 2008), few students should have to be sold that group identification plays an important role in explaining political behavior. But while it is easy to introduce students to the potential impacts and implications of ethnonationalism, religion, ideology, and/or minority status both in their own countries and overseas, it is more of a challenge to get the vast majority of students, particularly students who see themselves as from the ethnic/religious majority in the largely multicultural United States, to truly grasp the concepts and issues associated with identity formation, salience, and mobilization. In a society where identity can be easily hyphenated, remain multilayered, and where crosscutting identity cleavages are seen as foundational to an open civil society, few students have a deep personal identification with a single, determinate identity that defines their world view, or at least few are aware of such an identity or the power of such. We provide a two part identity exercise that provides an effective mechanism for getting students to engage directly with issues of identity formation, salience, and mobilization. Our exercise first seeks to have students confront their own identity and its salience to themselves. Unlike the well known Invisible Knapsack exercise (McIntosh, 1988), which is designed to specifically make those in majority groups confront their previously unstated or unexplored societal privileges or prejudices, our exercise seeks to address identity without provoking a discussion about the value of any one specific identity over or in direct contrast with another. Next, the exercise utilizes highly mobilized identity rhetoric in the form of nationalist poetry to provide the students with an opportunity to sample quickly but effectively the impact and nature of identity politics in conflict cases, again without provoking a distracting debate about the value of the particular identity or the reality of the cases in question on the ground. Using this exercise, students are able to grapple with their own identity formation, its potential salience and possibility for mobilization, as well as the power of identity mobilization writ large, in a powerful but controlled and relatively apolitical manner that supports teaching about identity as a political phenomenon.

This chapter rejects the traditional approach of ‘Christian archaeology’ and its attempt at identifying a Christian material signature. Instead, it asks whether and how artefacts are used in everyday life to express religious identity. This approach is inspired by the work of Rogers Brubaker on ethnicity in the city of Cluj (Romania). A critical review of personal objects from Roman Britain bearing Christian symbols shows that it is difficult to find objects that would unequivocally attest to the belief of their owners. The identification of Christian burials in Roman Britain and elsewhere has also proven to be a vain project in the absence of an inscription mentioning the religious affiliation of the deceased. Thus, the use of a material signature as a prediction tool for determining the religion of individuals cannot but fail or result in circular reasoning. It is more relevant and rewarding to question the experiential salience of religious identity. A review of material evidence, or rather its absence, for Donatism in Roman Africa suggests that religious identity was not experientially salient in a context, such as the places of cult, where the specific affiliation was clear to all participants. In other contexts, such as the highly competitive context of Dura Europos, displaying religious affiliation was important, even within a specific place of cult. The conclusion is not only that a clearly demarcated Christian material culture is difficult to discern, but that this lack of distinction is to be expected, as there were very few contexts in which Christians in Late Antiquity would experience their religious identity as experientially salient enough to make a point of marking it.