Rehabilitation and Recidivism Trends among Youth Offenders in Nigeria’s Correctional Facilities: a Narrative Review

This chapter explores the potential risks of cataloging a database of information about juveniles as it relates to sex offenders and their offenses. The information gathered during a juvenile offender's incarceration can be used to identify mental illness, to individualize mental health treatment, to link the juvenile with a variety of treatment resources, and to plan for future mental health treatment after the juvenile offender leaves a correctional facility. The immediate goal of each of these data utilization venues is the provision of appropriate and successful mental health treatment. The ultimate goal of these venues is to prevent future recidivism. Although juvenile offenders are presumed to benefit from assessment and treatment, the protection of society from further harmful acts is inherent in both of these goals. The evaluation of juvenile sex offenders is particularly fraught with implications for society as well as for the juvenile's future life. Significant recidivism is common in adult sex offenders (Prentky, 1997) and has also been encountered among the juvenile sex offender population (Worling, 2000). Because of these high recidivism rates, numerous jurisdictions and the federal government have enacted laws aimed at preventing recidivism and protecting the public at large from future victimization once sex offenders are released from custody. Information gathered from juvenile sex offenders, including the presence of sexual disorders (i.e., paraphilia), conduct disorder, other mental illness, or prior sexual assaults not known to the criminal justice system, can be used to trigger a juvenile's referral to a sex-offender registry or to a civil commitment process commonly known as sexually violent offender (SVO) or sexually violent predator (SVP) commitment. Frequently, these laws have been the subject of controversy, especially when applied to juvenile offenders, and have been challenged in both state and federal courts. This chapter will review two types of these laws: laws requiring sex offender registration with or without community notification, and laws committing sex offenders to sex offender treatment at the time they are released from incarceration. Problems associated with the application of these laws to juveniles will also be discussed. Language: en

Pathways to Detention

Although studies reveal substantial mental health treatment needs among youths in the juvenile justice system, far less is known about young offenders transferred to adult criminal court. This statewide study examined the mental health needs of young offenders who committed serious crimes and were transferred to adult court and subsequently incarcerated in a prison for adults. Sixty-four boys aged 16 and 17 years who were incarcerated in the Texas adult correctional system completed the Massachusetts Youth Screening Instrument-Version 2 (MAYSI-2), a mental health screening measure widely used in the juvenile justice system. Scores from the youths in adult prison were compared with those of a matched sample of youths in juvenile correctional facilities, drawn from the MAYSI-2 normative data. Youths in adult prison reported substantial symptoms of mental health problems. Most youths surveyed (51%) scored above the highest clinical cutoff (the "warning" range) on at least one MAYSI-2 subscale. For every clinical subscale except suicide ideation, the majority of youths (54% to 70%, depending on the subscale) scored above the "caution" range. Juveniles in adult prison reported higher rates of symptoms than did those in juvenile correctional facilities (effect sizes ranged from d=.18 to d=.65, depending on the subscale). Although the mental health needs of youths in the juvenile justice system are well documented, this study reveals that mental health treatment needs appear to be even more pronounced in the small subgroup of youths transferred to the adult criminal justice system and incarcerated in adult prison.

In Indonesia's correctional system, correctional institutions play a vital role, particularly in educating offenders, including juvenile offenders. Juvenile offenders are individuals under 17 years of age or those who do not yet possess an ID card, commonly referred to as children. Since children are in their developmental stage and are vulnerable to environmental influences that may worsen their psychosocial condition, rehabilitation often poses significant challenges for them. Therefore, correctional institutions are responsible for providing training that encompasses rehabilitation, social reintegration, and punishment. In this context, the rehabilitation process aims to fulfill the rights of children in correctional facilities, including access to formal and non-formal education, life skills training, and psychological counseling. The objective of this training is to equip children with the necessary skills to reintegrate into society after serving their sentence. Moreover, correctional institutions also play a role in fostering a sense of responsibility and self-esteem in juvenile offenders, enabling them to become active and positive members of society. The purpose of this study is to examine how correctional institutions contribute to the rehabilitation of juvenile offenders and the challenges faced in implementing rehabilitation programs that align with children's rights. The research findings reveal that, despite efforts by correctional institutions to implement various rehabilitation programs, such as education, skills training, and psychological counseling, there is still much to be improved.

Most chapters include Reading Objectives, Introduction, Summary, Integration: Questions and Topics for Study and Discussion, and References. Preface. I. CONFORMITY, DEVIANCE, AND JUVENILE DELINQUENCY. Introduction: The Sociological Perspective and Focus on Juvenile Delinquency. 1. Juvenile Delinquency: The Act, Actor, and Audience. What Is Juvenile Delinquency? Synthesized Definition of Delinquency. 2. Sociological Overview: Society, Norms, Conformity, and Deviant Behavior. The Sociological Perspective. The Social Nature of Humans. Norms. Sources of Norms. Folkways and Mores. Normative Behavior: Conformity. Deviant Behavior: Nonconformity. Negative Aspects of Deviance. Positive Aspects of Deviance. Juvenile Delinquency. 3. The Dimensions of the Delinquency Problem. Juvenile Delinquency Data. Official Sources of Delinquency Information. The Composite Delinquent Profile: Typical or Stereotypical? Unofficial Sources of Delinquency Information. The Magnitude and Trends of Juvenile Delinquency: Demographic Analysis. Addendum: A Balanced Perspective of American Youth. II. CAUSES OF JUVENILE DELINQUENCY. Introduction: Theory and the Etiology of Juvenile Delinquency. 4. Biological Explanations of Juvenile Delinquency. The Link between Biology and Behavior: Myths and Folklore. The Classical School of Criminological Thought. The Positive School of Criminology. Twentieth-Century Constitutional Typologies. The Continuing Search for the Biological Connection. Sociobiological Explanations. 5. Psychogenic Explanations of Juvenile Delinquency. The Psychogenic Approach. The Discovery of the Unconscious. The Formation of Personality. Freudian Theory as an Explanation of and Delinquency. Psychoanalysis. Projective Tests. Delinquent Acts as Symptoms. Other Psychogenic Explanations of Juvenile Delinquency. Psychological Typology of Delinquency. Criticisms and Limitations of the Psychogenic Approach. 6. Sociological Explanations of Delinquency: Social Strain and Cultural Transmission Theories. Theory. Social Strain Theories. Cultural Transmission Theories. 7. Sociological Explanations of Juvenile Delinquency: Social Learning and Social Control Theories. Social Learning Theories. Social Control Theories. 8. Sociological Explanations of Juvenile Delinquency: Labeling and Radical Theories. Labeling Theories. Radical Theories. An Overview of the Sociological Explanations. 9. The Future for Causal Explanations of Delinquency: The Ongoing Process of Theory-Building. Introduction: Review of Past Theory-Building for Explaining Juvenile Delinquency. Renewed Examination of Delinquency Motivation: Crime is Fun! Making Decisions for Delinquency: Rational Choice Theory. The Punishment Response: Deterrence Theory. Back to the Future: The Prospects and Direction for New Theory-Building. Concept Integration: Questions and Topics for Study and Discussion. III. JUVENILE DELINQUENCY IN SOCIAL CONTEXT. Introduction: Collective Behavior and Social Groupings. 10. The Family and Juvenile Delinquency. The Changing Role of the Family. Increasing Importance of the Nuclear Family and the Creation of Adolescence. The Family as an Agent of Socialization. Working Mothers and Juvenile Delinquency. Other Family Variables and Juvenile Delinquency. Broken Homes and Delinquency. The Family and Delinquency Prevention. 11. Schools and Delinquency. The School as an Arena. Schools and the Socialization Process. Juvenile Delinquency and the School Experience. Schools as a Screening Device. Schools as Combat Zones. School as Bureaucracy. Schools and Delinquency Prevention. 12. The Youth Subculture. Culture, Subcultures, and Countercultures. The Creation of a Youth Subculture. Role of the Youth Subculture. Distinctive Elements of the Youth Subculture. The Youth Subculture and Juvenile Delinquency. Youth Countercultures and Delinquency. The Youth Subculture and Delinquency Prevention. 13. Juvenile Gangs and Delinquent Behavior. The Solitary Delinquent. Group Delinquency. The Play Group. The Juvenile Gang. Contemporary Youth Gangs in the United States. The Motives for Gang Membership. Gang Organization. Composition of Gang Membership. Gang Violence. Dyads and Triads. Explanatory Theories of Gang Formation and Behavior: Summary and Synthesis. IV. SOCIAL CONTROL: THE JUVENILE JUSTICE SYSTEM. Introduction: Elements of Social Control. 14. Juveniles and the Police. Juvenile Encounters with Police. Policing Juveniles. Police Discretion in Handling Juveniles. Police and Due Process. Police, Community Policing, and Delinquency Prevention. 15. Juvenile Courts. Historical Background of the Juvenile Courts. The Child Savers' Movement. The Juvenile Court. The Juvenile Court and Due Process. Juvenile Court Procedures. The Role of Attorneys in Juvenile Court. Criticisms of the Juvenile Court. The Multifaceted Juvenile Court. The Future of the Juvenile Court. 16. Juvenile Corrections. Social Control and Deterrence Theory. Voluntary Social Control. Informal Social Control. Formal Social Control. Deinstitutionalization, Community Corrections, and Diversion. Evaluation of Deinstitutionalization, Community Corrections, and Diversion. V. STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH JUVENILE DELINQUENCY. Introduction: Approaching Treatment and Prevention in a Social Context. 17. Treatment and Prevention Strategies. Treatment Ideology and Delinquency Treatment Programs. Prevention Ideology and Delinquency Prevention Programs. Sociological Approaches to Delinquency Treatment and Prevention. Mobilizing the Community to Prevent Delinquency. Evaluation of Delinquency Treatment and Prevention Strategies. 18. Rethinking the Delinquency Problem. The Social Nature of Juvenile Delinquency. Eliminating the Marginal Status of Juveniles. Standardization or Elimination of Juvenile Codes. Decriminalization of Status Offenses. Revision of the Juvenile Court. Modification of Juvenile Corrections. Strengthening the Family. Changing the Educational System. Redefining Juvenile Delinquency. Glossary. Name Index. Subject Index.

Coping style and psychological health among adolescent prisoners: a study of young and juvenile offenders

Young offenders typically have multiple and complex needs across numerous domains, including mental health, family, peers and community. However, many of these young people also possess strengths that protect against further offending behaviour. Knowledge of the strengths and needs of young offenders, and the relationship between these factors and offending, is integral to the development of accurate risk assessment tools and effective treatment programs. However, research examining the depth and breadth of needs faced by young offenders in Australia remains limited, and research on protective factors is in relative infancy. One purported protective factor, resilience, has been inconsistently defined and has received little research attention in the offending literature despite its inclusion in some risk assessment tools. Arguably, information on the needs of Australian young offenders and clarification of the proposed protective factor of resilience and its association with offending is critical to help guide the development of valid risk assessment tools, as well as more targeted preventative and treatment initiatives. Against this background, the broad aims of this thesis were to (i) obtain data on the prevalence of a variety of needs related to offending including, but not limited to, mental illness, low intelligence and psychopathy in young adult offenders in Victoria, Australia; (ii) examine more closely the construct of resilience and attempt to clarify its conceptualisation; and (iii) explore whether resilience is associated with reoffending in young adult offenders. Three studies are reported. The first was an investigation of the prevalence of low intelligence, mental illness, and psychopathy in young adult offenders. Further, risk for reoffending, including an examination of criminogenic needs, was assessed. Based on semi-structured interviews and a variety of psychological tests, it was found that a large majority of the young offenders had likely Axis I disorders (including mood, anxiety, substance use, eating and psychotic disorders) and were assessed as being a high or very high risk of reoffending. Further, the prevalence of low intelligence was much higher than would be expected in the general population. The second study was an examination of the construct of resilience. A number of factors hypothesised to contribute to resilience, such as family and peer factors, mental health and intelligence, were considered to determine whether they contributed significantly to explaining resilience scores according to a well-validated resilience scale. Resilience was only found to be associated with the absence of a mental illness; however, less than six percent of the resilience score was explained by this factor. The third study explored the relationship between resilience and reoffending (defined as new charges). Recidivism data was obtained from official Victoria Police records. Resilience and a number of risk factors including intelligence, mental illness, and the total score on a risk assessment measure were examined to determine if and how resilience was associated with reoffending. Results showed no statistically significant relationship between resilience and subsequent criminal charges during 7-12 month follow-up. The risk assessment tool, intelligence, and having a history of assault were found to be significantly associated with reoffending; a simple multivariate model comprising the risk assessment measure total score and Full Scale IQ score was found to predict reoffending with good accuracy. Collectively, the findings from these three inter-related studies have implications for the assessment and treatment of young offenders. The high prevalence of both mental illness and low intelligence speaks to the need for adequate assessment of these issues when an individual enters the justice system. As mental illness and poor cognitive functioning have implications for an individuals’ ability to respond to treatment, as well as to serve their sentence and desist from offending, it is critical that they are adequately identified and intervention and management strategies are tailored according to individual’s needs. Importantly, the results also have implications for the conceptualisation of resilience, its measurement, and its inclusion in standardised risk assessment instruments. Results from this research provide clarification regarding which factors do and do not contribute to the construct of resilience. Further, resilience was not found to be associated with future offending. These results suggest contemporary risk assessment instruments incorporating resilience may require revision to ensure they incorporate only risk and protective factors with sound empirical support.

Prevalence of and Gender Differences in Psychiatric Disorders Among Juvenile Delinquents Incarcerated for Nine Months

Highlights of the 1999 Institute on Psychiatric Services

The actual characteristics of young offenders involved in behaviours indicative of “bullying others” or of “being bullied” have received only limited research attention. No research to date has focused on prison‐based behavioural characteristics. The present study aimed to explore these characteristics in a sample of young and juvenile male offenders. Subsidiary aims included examining the nature and extent of behaviours indicative of bullying, and the extent to which a developmental model of aggression can be applied to a prison sample. One hundred and thirty‐three offenders (102 young and 31 juvenile) completed a behavioural measure of behaviours indicative of bullying (Direct and Indirect Prisoner Behaviour Checklist). Juvenile offenders were more likely to report “being bullied” physically than young offenders and were less likely to report “bullying others” overall, directly and psychologically/verbally. Young offenders were more likely to be classified as “bully/victims” than juveniles. Prison‐based behavioural characteristics were more predictive of membership to the perpetrator and/or victim groups than personal descriptive characteristics such as age, sentence length, offence type, ethnic origin and total amount of time spent in prison. Bully/victims were predicted by increased negative and drug‐related behaviour and pure victims by decreased positive behaviour. There were no significant predictors for pure bullies. Bully/victims were found to react more aggressively to their victimization than pure victims. The present findings suggest that there are reliable predictors of involvement as a perpetrator and/or victim among young and juvenile samples. The findings are compared to previous research and discussed with regard to the environment in which bullying behaviour is being assessed. Aggr. Behav. 32:172–180, 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

Social Welfare and Fairness in Juvenile Crime Regulation

Juveniles with mental health and other specialized needs are overrepresented in the juvenile justice system, and while juvenile corrections have not historically provided standardized and evidence-based mental health services for its incarcerated youth, the demand is evident. The reality is that juveniles with serious mental illness are committed to youth corrections facilities and justice systems generally do not have the capacity to provide effective mental health care. However, juvenile corrections are aware of the serious refractions involved and are exploring effective interventions. This involves examining the critical components of treatment and implementing promising youth correction programs for juveniles who are incarcerated. The authors review critical treatment factors involved in the mental health care of youth and provide recommendations to the field to further develop promising institutional programs. Keywords: Juvenile, Mental Illness, Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT), Mode Deactivation Therapy (MDT), Family Integrative Transition (FIT), Aggression Replacement Training (ART), Thinking For a Change (TFAC), Motivational Enhancement Therapy (MET) Introduction Juvenile offenders with mental illness are a serious concern for juvenile correctional systems. There has been a steady increase of this population throughout the decade of the nineties (Teplin & McClelland, 1998; Timmons-Mitchell, et al., 1997). In 2003 about 2.3 million youth under the age of 18 were arrested and over 130,000 were placed in detention and juvenile correctional facilities (Cocozza, Trupin, & Teodosio, 2003). Concurrently there has been a significant increase in the number of juvenile offenders who have been diagnosed with mental illnesses and substance use disorders (Cocozza, 1997; Faenza & Siegfried, 1998; Libert & Speigler, 1990; Timmons-Mitchell, Brown, Schulz, Webster, Underwood, & Semple, 1997; Teplin, Abram, McClelland, Dulcan, Mericle, 2002; Villani, 1999 & Wasserman, Ko & McReynolds, 2004). Between 50 to 75 percent of all juvenile who enter the justice system has diagnosable mental health issues (Coalition for Juvenile Justice, 2000). The minority population in the juvenile justice system has gone unnoticed. Juvenile offenders who are at risk to maltreatment and negligence among those with mental health disorders are females and African-Americans. Females in the justice system have had their treatment needs overlooked and minimized. Females have higher rates of mood disorders, substance use, sexual abuse, and physical abuse (Timmons-Mitchell, et. al., 1997 & Teplin, et. al., 2002). Furthermore, African-American youth are twice as likely to be arrested and seven times as likely to be placed in youth corrections facilities compared with Caucasian youth. There is a minority overrepresentation, a disproportionate minority confinement, and an under utilization of mental health service identification and implementation. The former refers to the harsher treatment of minorities in comparison to their corresponding Caucasian by the juvenile justice system. The latter is a subset involving only the harsher treatment of minorities detained at secure facilities during pretrial and post-dispositional stages. It is clear that all juveniles with mental health and other specialized needs are overrepresented in the juvenile justice system (Otto, 1992; Teplin, et. al., 2002 & Timmons-Mitchell, et al., 1997). Juvenile justice administrators are faced with the multifaceted problems that arise when dealing with juveniles with serious mental illness. Although the literature on dealing with juvenile offenders with mental health issues is limited, juvenile justice administrators and mental health providers must be flexible in their responses. There has been a shift in the delivery of mental health services from residential and community-based care to the treatment of the serious mentally ill juvenile offender. …

This article examines correctional facilities, populations served, and educational programs offered. Statistical information on social indicators for young African American males, who are overrepresented in correctional system, provides backdrop for a profile of incarcerated youth. The profile is expanded through examination of special education programs and role they play in placement of young African American males in less than ideal educational settings and implication these placements have for academic programs in correctional facilities. Case studies link reality to statistics and topics discussed. We must accept reality that to confine offenders behind walls without trying to change them is an expensive folly with short-term benefits-winning battles while losing war. (Former U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice Warren Burger as cited in Taylor, 1993, p. 90) Research literature describes African American males as culturally deprived and dysfunctional segments of and firmly situates their problems in culturally biased environment they must navigate to obtain success (Chelf, 1992; Edley, 1996; Hopkins, 1997; Ravitch, 2000; West, 1994). It is important to note that numerous African American males break social barriers to success, but far too many continue to be marginalized by institutional practices in economy and in general. This marginalization begins early in lives of untold numbers of young Black males, as evidenced by their disproportionate representation in justice system. In today, the nexus of and adolescence have converged in a way that has juveniles being confined in numbers that cannot be accounted for by criminal activity alone and should give pause to any civil society (Bell, 2000, p. 189). Evidence reveals that juvenile justice facilities increasingly fill with youth of color (p. 207). According to results of a study conducted by Project READ, a national project aimed at improving reading skills, young offenders committed to correctional institutions at median age of 15 years, read, on average, at fourth grade level, and approximately one-third of these young offenders read below fourth grade level (Center on Crime, Communities, and Culture, 1997). Furthermore, most of these youth are poor, minority, disproportionately male and identified as having significant learning and or behavioral problems that entitle them to special education services. Youth in correctional facilities are among most educationally disadvantaged in our society. Many are functionally illiterate (unable to write a letter explaining a billing error) when they enter correctional institutions and either do not continue schooling upon release or soon drop out. Addressing needs of our nation's adjudicated (adjudication is court process that determines if committed act with which he or she is charged) and incarcerated youth is a challenge for state and local systems responsible for their care and development. The difficulties of this at-risk population can be found in social indicators that precede their entry into justice system and society's willingness to imprison those who lack necessary job skills and purchasing power to contribute to society. For most of these juveniles, school system within correctional environment will be their last contact with formal education. SOCIAL INDICATORS Study after study documents impact of historical vestiges of centuries of slavery, followed by 100 years of legal segregation and discrimination, on educational and economic status of African Americans (Marable, 2000; National Center for Education Statistics [NCES] 2001; Watkins, Lewis, & Chou, 2001). Several studies confirm: ... African Americans' unequal access to and facilities for formal education; poor quality of schooling available to large numbers of African American students; cultural differences between most of these students and their teachers; inadequate home and family support they receive for academic learning; their poor academic socialization; high African American school dropout rates and declining college and graduate school attendance; disparities in rewards for educational achievement between Blacks and other groups; and low expectations of academic productivity held for African American students, particularly males. …

Patterns of victimization in Ghana's Senior Correctional Center: The experiences of juvenile offenders

BackgroundMale juvenile offenders, a high-risk group with elevated recidivism and violent crime rates, face significant mental health problems, particularly with a high prevalence of psychotic experiences. Childhood abuse is known to play a key role in such experiences. Evidence suggests that insomnia and depressive symptoms may mediate the relationship between childhood abuse and psychotic experiences. This study explores how childhood abuse relates to psychotic experiences in male juvenile offenders, with a focus on the mediating roles of insomnia and depressive symptoms.MethodsThis is a convenience sampling survey, a total of 500 juvenile male offenders in a correctional facility in southwestern China were recruited. Assessment tools included the Childhood Trauma Screener (CTS) for childhood abuse, the Athens Insomnia Scale (AIS-8) for insomnia, the Patient Health Questionnaire-2 (PHQ-2) for depressive symptoms, and the Community Assessment of Psychic Experiences-8 (CAPE-8) for psychotic experiences. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, hierarchical regression, and SEM with SPSS 26.0 and Mplus 8.0.Results475 valid samples were analyzed for demographic variables such as family structure, residence, education, and substance use. Correlation analysis revealed significant positive associations between childhood abuse, insomnia, depressive symptoms, and psychotic experiences, with the strongest correlations observed between insomnia and depressive symptoms (r = 0.44) and between depressive symptoms and psychotic experiences (r = 0.44). Hierarchical regression and structural equation modeling confirmed that childhood abuse significantly predicts psychotic experiences (β = 0.22, p < 0.001), with insomnia (β = 0.42, p < 0.001) and depressive symptoms (β = 0.44, p < 0.001) serving as partial mediators. Mediation analysis indicated that insomnia and depressive symptoms jointly accounted for 28.40% of the variance in psychotic experiences, supporting the proposed chain mediation effect. These findings highlight the interactive mediating roles of insomnia and depressive symptoms in the relationship between childhood abuse and psychotic experiences among male adolescent offenders.ConclusionsInsomnia and depressive symptoms mediate the childhood abuse and psychotic experiences among male juvenile offenders. This finding provides valuable insights for mental health interventions aimed at reducing recidivism in this population. Specifically, the results highlight the importance of implementing mental health interventions targeting insomnia and depression within the correctional system, which not only helps improve the mental health of juvenile offenders but also effectively reduces the risk of recidivism.