Regulatory Flexibility

Emotion regulation and coping strategies are often conceptualized in eating disorder (ED) research as inherently adaptive or maladaptive, and successful regulation is often defined as greater overall use of adaptive strategies. However, recent empirical work outside of the field of EDs challenges this categorical conceptualization of strategies, demonstrating that adaptiveness is determined by the ability to flexibly implement and adjust strategies based on contextual demands (i.e., regulatory flexibility). Despite evidence that emotion regulation and coping strategies are best conceptualized in terms of flexibility in the broader literature, few ED studies have adopted this model. We review the current conceptual framework of emotion regulation and coping strategies used in ED research and present regulatory flexibility as an alternative approach to conceptualizing these strategies. The lack of research on regulatory flexibility among individuals with EDs limits our understanding of the role of emotion regulation and coping difficulties in ED risk and maintenance. Adopting a regulatory flexibility model of strategies in EDs may extend knowledge of the role of emotion regulation difficulties in the development and maintenance of EDs. We highlight the potential utility of investigating regulatory flexibility and present recommendations for future research on regulatory flexibility in EDs. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Research on emotion regulation and coping strategy usage in eating disorders often view regulatory strategies as inherently adaptive or maladaptive. However, recent studies support defining strategies in terms of flexibility. Adopting a regulatory flexibility model of strategies in eating disorders research may advance knowledge of the role of emotion regulation difficulties in the development and maintenance of eating disorders, ultimately enhancing prevention and treatment efforts.

BackgroundContemporary views of emotion dysregulation in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) highlight reduced ability to flexibly select regulatory strategies according to differing situational demands. However, empirical evidence of reduced regulatory selection flexibility in PTSD is lacking. Multiple studies show that healthy individuals demonstrate regulatory selection flexibility manifested in selecting attentional disengagement regulatory strategies (e.g. distraction) in high-intensity emotional contexts and selecting engagement meaning change strategies (e.g. reappraisal) in low-intensity contexts. Accordingly, we hypothesized that PTSD populations will show reduced regulatory selection flexibility manifested in diminished increase in distraction (over reappraisal) preference as intensity increases from low to high intensity.MethodsStudy 1 compared student participants with high (N = 22) post-traumatic symptoms (PTS, meeting the clinical cutoff for PTSD) and participants with low (N = 22) post-traumatic symptoms. Study 2 compared PTSD diagnosed women (N = 31) due to childhood sexual abuse and matched non-clinical women (N = 31). In both studies, participants completed a well-established regulatory selection flexibility performance-based paradigm that involves selecting between distraction and reappraisal to regulate negative emotional words of low and high intensity.ResultsBeyond demonstrating adequate psychometric properties, Study 1 confirmed that relative to the low PTS group, the high PTS group presented reduced regulatory selection flexibility (p = 0.01, = 0.14). Study 2 critically extended findings of Study 1, in showing similar reduced regulatory selection flexibility in a diagnosed PTSD population, relative to a non-clinical population (p = 0.002, = 0.114).ConclusionsTwo studies provide converging evidence for reduced emotion regulatory selection flexibility in two PTSD populations.

Individuals encounter a variety of emotional challenges daily, with optimal emotion modulation requiring adaptive choice among available means of regulation. However, individuals differ in the ability to flexibly and adaptively move between engaging and disengaging emotion regulation (ER) strategies as per contextual demands, referred to as regulatory choice flexibility. Greater regulatory choice flexibility is associated with greater mental health, well-being and resilience, warranting the development of interventions to increase such flexibility. We hypothesized that a mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program would fulfill this goal. To test our hypothesis, we recruited college students to either participate in an 8-week MBSR workshop or join a waiting list for a later workshop (i.e., control participants). After the workshop's completion, all participants were invited to the laboratory and completed several computerized tasks examining their regulatory choice flexibility when exposed to universally emotion-laden stimuli as well as stimuli specifically related to the students' social and political environment. The regulatory choice patterns of participants who underwent MBSR training were found to be more flexible than those of participants who had not yet completed the workshop, with the former more likely than the latter to favor an engaging ER strategy (i.e., reappraisal) when faced with low-intensity stimuli and a disengaging strategy (i.e., distraction) when faced with high-intensity stimuli. The findings' importance is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

The late positive potential as a neurocognitive index of emotion regulatory flexibility

Regulatory selection flexibility—the ability to flexibly choose emotion regulation strategies that are appropriate to dynamic contextual demands—has been theorized as a critical component of adaptive emotional functioning. Despite this, little research has investigated whether individual differences in regulatory selection flexibility influence real-time emotional experiences. The current study aimed to test the effectiveness of regulatory selection flexibility in reducing negative affect while exposed to emotion-eliciting stimuli. Using a behavioral regulatory selection task, participants viewed negative images that differed in emotional intensity and selected between engagement cognitive change (reappraisal) or attentional disengagement (distraction) strategies to manage their emotional responses. Negative affect was rated immediately before and after the regulatory period, to index emotional experience. Greater regulatory selection flexibility was associated with greater reductions in negative affect. Our findings offer preliminary evidence for the immediate psychological benefit of regulatory selection flexibility and highlight some promising avenues for future research.

Despite arguments about the importance of self-regulated learning (SRL) in massive open online courses (MOOCs) (Terras & Ramsay, 2015), understanding of the topic is limited. This study offers a systematic review of empirical research on SRL in MOOCs. It revealed that the body of literature on SRL in MOOCs has grown from 2014 to 2016. The content analysis findings show that SRL was a factor positively influencing learning in MOOCs. SRL strategies were identified, including motivational regulation strategies, specifically self-efficacy, task value, and goal setting. Particular cognitive regulation strategies were not identified, and goal setting was found as a metacognitive regulation strategy. Regarding behavioural and contextual regulation strategies, help seeking, time management, and effort regulation were identified. In addition, several MOOC designs and SRL interventions that consider unique characteristics of MOOCs were proposed to promote SRL. Implications of these findings and future research are discussed.

This article explores various regulatory and operational strategies aimed at accelerating drug development by shortening clinical trials. The length of traditional clinical trials presents challenges in delivering timely therapies to patients, making it crucial to identify approaches that expedite the process without compromising safety or data integrity. The strategies discussed include adaptive trial designs, utilizing surrogate endpoints, leveraging real-world evidence, regulatory flexibility, streamlined protocols and procedures, and enhanced patient recruitment and enrollment. By implementing these strategies, researchers can make informed decisions, expedite data analysis, and enhance trial efficiency. The article emphasizes the importance of collaboration among stakeholders to advance the field of clinical trials and bring innovative therapies to patients more quickly

Educators face high levels of work-related stress, which may elevate their risk of anxiety and depression. Guided by the Conservation of Resources (COR) framework, this study examined two protective resources—individual resources (regulatory and cognitive flexibility, reflecting adaptive behavioral, cognitive, and regulatory strategies) and community resources (school climate, reflecting school norms, values, and relationships)—and their role in mental health outcomes. A sample of 1,219 Israeli secondary school educators (85.6% female, mean age = 44 years) completed an online survey assessing school-related stress exposure, flexibility, school climate, and symptoms of anxiety/depression. Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) revealed that greater stress exposure predicted elevated anxiety (b = 0.10, p < .001) and depression (b = 1.26, p < .001) symptoms. Conversely, higher regulatory flexibility was associated with reduced anxiety (b = − 0.12, p < .001) and depression (b = − 0.67, p < .001), and higher cognitive flexibility similarly predicted fewer anxiety (b = − 0.25, p < .001) and depression (b = − 2.44, p < .001) symptoms. At the school level, a positive school climate correlated with fewer symptoms of anxiety (b = − 0.37, p < .01) and depression (b = − 2.65, p < .01). These findings align with the COR framework, emphasizing how systemic (school climate) and individual (flexibility) resources independently buffer against mental health challenges. Interventions targeting school-level climate improvements (e.g., fostering cooperative norms) and individual-level flexibility training (e.g., adaptive coping strategies) could enhance educator well-being.

While evidence shows that people with early psychosis are flexible in using different emotion regulation (ER) strategies to manage the varying contextual demands, no studies have examined the effectiveness of such regulatory flexibility in this population. We addressed this issue by investigating whether and how ER flexibility relate to different dynamic aspects (variability, instability, inertia, and recovery) of negative affect (NA) in a combined early psychosis sample, consisting of both individuals at high clinical risk for psychosis and those diagnosed with first-episode psychosis. Participants were 148 individuals from the INTERACT project, a multi-center randomized controlled trial on the efficacy of acceptance and commitment therapy in early psychosis. We utilized data from the baseline assessment, during which all participants completed six days of experience sampling assessment of momentary NA, as well as end-of-day assessments of ER strategy use. Multilevel models of within-person associations showed that greater ER flexibility was associated with more stable NA, and quicker recovery of NA from stressors during the day. Linear regression analyses of between-person associations showed that people who had more variable and unstable NA reported greater ER flexibility generally. No evidence was found for associations with NA inertia. The current study identified unique within-person and between-person links between ER flexibility and dynamics of NA in early psychosis. These findings further provide evidence for ER flexibility in early psychosis, emphasizing the adaptive nature of regulatory flexibility in relation to reduced instability in NA and faster recovery from NA in everyday life.

BackgroundEven if it was first described in borderline personality disorder, emotion dysregulation (ED) is increasingly recognized as a transdiagnostic and dimensional construct, best understood along a continuum of severity rather than as a discrete category. Prior cluster-analytic studies have consistently explored heterogeneity within this continuum by identifying patient subgroups, but most were conducted in populations defined by specific diagnostic categories, limiting their generalizability. To better capture ED’s core components, studies conducted in clinically heterogeneous adult populations are needed.MethodsIn this context, we conducted a latent profile analysis on 349 adults referred for ED-related difficulties at a specialized outpatient clinic. Profiles were derived from the six subscales of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. Patients were assessed on sociodemographic variables, emotion regulation difficulties and strategies, mentalizing abilities, comorbid psychopathology, and well-being.ResultsA two-class solution was retained. Subgroups did not align with any specific diagnostic category but rather emerged along a severity continuum. Cluster 1 (n = 267) was characterized by more severe ED in every domain, higher use of non-adaptive regulation strategies, lower self-mentalizing abilities, greater comorbid psychopathology, and lower well-being. Cluster 2 (n = 82) displayed comparatively preserved emotion regulation abilities and strategies, higher self-mentalizing, fewer comorbidities, and greater well-being.ConclusionsOur findings provide further evidence for the existence and characterization of subgroups in patients with ED, reflecting gradations along a severity continuum. While exploratory, they also suggest that core mechanisms targeted by DBT and MBT (i.e., maladaptive emotion regulation strategies and self-mentalizing abilities) may be relevant therapeutic targets across a broader transdiagnostic spectrum.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40479-025-00319-x.

To study whether and how emotion regulation (EmR) strategies are associated with adolescents’ well-being, 633 Italian adolescents completed a survey that measured, using the emotion regulation questionnaire (ERQ), the strategies of cognitive reappraisal (CR) and expressive suppression (ES), and their relationship with several well-being measures. Factor analysis and reliability results confirmed the validity of ERQ to assess adolescents’ regulation strategies. Correlation and regression results showed that a greater reliance on CR was positively associated with better well-being outcomes for most indicators, especially life satisfaction, social support perception, and positive affect; greater preference for ES conversely was associated with lower well-being level for all indicators, including psychological health, emotional loneliness, and negative affect. Neither gender nor age differences were observed for CR and ES; CR and ES were positively correlated with each other. Both analysis of variance...

Interpersonal emotion regulation (ER) refers to the different processes aimed at changing the emotional states of others. Some authors have speculated about the pivotal role of empathy for interpersonal ER to happen. However, the very limited empirical evidence suggests that only cognitive empathy as opposed to affective empathy may be a necessary antecedent. As previous research only considered interpersonal affect improvement and showed mixed evidence for the regulation strategies, we aimed to address this gap in the current research. To that aim, 374 adults (M = 30.3 years, 249 female) reported their tendency to engage in cognitive (perspective‐taking) and affective empathy (empathic concern and personal distress) as well as their tendency to improve and worsen others' mood, and to use different regulation strategies (situation modification, attention deployment, cognitive change, and modulation of the emotional response) to change others' feelings. Results of the regression analyses showed that while affect improvement was not significantly predicted by any of the empathy variables, affect worsening was positively predicted by personal distress. Concerning the regulation strategies, while cognitive change and situation modification were positively predicted by personal distress, attention deployment was positively predicted by perspective‐taking. Overall, the obtained results highlight the need to further investigate the link between empathy and ER and to carefully consider the methods selected for that purpose.

This mixed-methods study investigated cognitive appraisal, emotional experience, motivations for showing and hiding emotions, and strategies for emotional regulation in children attending a Chinese boarding school. Sixty-nine children (Mage = 9.04 years, SD = 0.98) were presented with vignettes designed to elicit a range of emotions and subsequently interviewed regarding their appraisals, motivations for emotional display, and strategies for emotional regulation. Transcripts were analysed thematically and associations between appraisal and emotion were explored quantitatively. Similar to findings in other cultures, anger was found to be associated with causal/blame appraisal, sadness with loss/helplessness, fear/worry with potential punishment/threat, and happiness/OK with problem-solving/positive appraisal. In contrast to findings from Western cultures, Chinese children reported greater willingness to show emotions in a peer context compared to a family context. “Other-protective” motivations for hiding emotion were reported more by older children than by younger children, and more in a family context than in a peer context. Finally, six areas of emotion regulation strategies were identified by thematic analysis. Older children reported broader repertoires of emotion regulation strategies than did younger children, with the two largest differences being “mental engagement” and “social engagement” strategies.

Despite growing research on emotion regulation (ER) strategies and psychopathology, research has primarily focused on identifying one-to-one associations between ER strategies and symptoms. Thus, little is known about how patterns in the repertoires of ER strategies are associated with different mental disorders. We utilised latent class analysis to identify distinct repertoires of ER strategies, and their links with various psychopathology domains (i.e., anxiety, depression, disordered eating, borderline personality). Participants (N = 531) reported on their use of seven ER strategies in six recalled stressful contexts, as well as on their symptoms of psychopathology. We identified five classes of ER strategies: Low Regulators (n = 168), High Regulators (n = 140), Adaptive Regulators (n = 99), Worriers/Ruminators (n = 96) and Avoiders (n = 28). Generally, High Regulators and Worriers/Ruminators endorsed greater levels of psychopathology, relative to Low and Adaptive Regulators. Our findings underscore the importance of characterising the dynamics of ER repertoires when seeking to understand links between ER strategies and psychopathology.

The past decade and a half has witnessed a renewed interest in the study of affective processes. James Gross’ process model of emotion regulation has provided a theoretical framework for this approach. This model stipulates that individuals have a repertoire of emotion regulation strategies they use in order to modify their affect and/or the situations eliciting such affect. However, empirical investigations of the use of emotion regulation strategies have largely oversimplified this model by assuming that individuals use only one regulation strategy to manage the affect elicited by a given emotion-eliciting stimulus or situation. This is problematic because it has resulted in a limited understanding of the complex process by which individuals select and implement regulation strategies. In this brief report, we present findings suggesting that people spontaneously use multiple emotion regulation strategies in response to a brief disgust-eliciting film clip. We discuss implications for future empirical work on emotion regulation strategies.