Reframing Portfolio Evidence Empowering Teachers through Single-Case Frameworks

Abstract

Introduction Bransford, Darling-Hammond, and LePage (2005) indicate that quality instruction requires teachers to navigate learner characteristics, content knowledge, and pedagogy through social and political climates. In the past 30 years, every state has increased requirements for teachers to enter the profession (Zumwalt & Craig, 2005). Yet assessing effective teachers remains difficult; although teacher inputs play a role, so too do student prior achievement and family and community norms (Fallon, 2006; Hanushek & Rivken, 2006, 2010). Traditionally, assessment of teacher quality relied on standardized testing, peer and administrator observations, student achievement, and related activities. Yet many aspects of effective teaching remain elusive with these assessments (Cochran-Smith & the Boston College Evidence Team, 2009; Nazier, 1997). Standardized test scores aligned to state and national standards are common measures of teacher and school quality in the United States. They allow administrators and policy makers to track and compare student achievement over time. They also certify that teachers have sufficient background knowledge in specified subject areas. However, standardized tests measure content knowledge while minimally considering classroom practice, student background, or individual needs and circumstances. To complement standardized subject assessment exams, teacher education programs provide multiple field experiences for purposes of guidance, methods exploration, and student accountability. Shaping and measuring the success of these programs is difficult and costly. Placements are often made at schools located several miles from university settings. Cooperating teachers and mentors are sometimes selected on availability rather than quality. Periodic observations require large time commitments, may interrupt classroom dynamics, and are limited in number. In-service teachers face similar challenges. Although support personnel reside within local schools, they often have their own teaching or administrative responsibilities and may lack content knowledge to judge instructional quality (Kelley, 2004; West, Rich, Shepherd, Recesso, & Hannafin, 2009). To better measure teacher effectiveness, Fallon (2006) and the National Research Council (2005) suggest that researchers turn to longitudinal, quantitative studies focused on student achievement. However, others question the type and quality of evidence these studies reveal. Cochran-Smith and the Boston College Evidence Team (2009) claim that value questions embedded within educational research may not be addressed with traditional quantitative methods and recommend using multiple approaches to explore teacher effectiveness. Cochran-Smith (2006) suggested that researchers must consider the purpose of evidence collection, who collected it, and under what contexts as they examine teacher effectiveness. These circumstances guide researchers on the quality and usefulness of evidence collections. In addition to these concerns, teachers often lack proper training to conduct rigorous, scientific research and lack access to effective sample sizes (Fallon, 2006; Rippon & Martin, 2006). A teacher's primary responsibility is instruction. It is doubtful that teachers can conduct advanced quantitative research while simultaneously meeting students' learning needs. Researchers who possess these credentials are often distanced from classroom settings and may fail to capture relevant and adequate measures of classroom instruction. While not minimizing the importance of evidence identified through complex quantitative studies, these approaches are unrealistic for most teachers, who must rely on their own devices for classroom evaluation and development. Alternative evidence collection, organization, and analysis methods are needed. The purpose of this article is to propose a framework of evidence selection and organization through portfolio development and provide guidance for evidence selection that accommodates valid formative practices in classroom settings. …