Reduplication In Khiamniungan

This chapter discusses the reduplication processes that are at work in Cavinena, a Tacanan language from Amazonian Bolivi. It provides the phonological and morphosyntactic backgrounds necessary to understand the effects of reduplication in Cavinena, with information on word classes, transitivity, predicate structure, and grammatical functions. The chapter then presents an overview of each of the 13 reduplication patterns, listing the main parameters that are used to distinguish one from the other. The reduplication patterns are based on the distinction between full and partial reduplication, and between simple and automatic reduplication. The chapter also provides a detailed presentation of the most interesting patterns, namely the four applying to verbs. It discusses anti-passive simple full reduplication, auxiliary-triggering simple full reduplication, automatic full reduplication, and automatic final-CV reduplication. The chapter ends with a table that summarize the main characteristics of reduplication in Cavinena. Keywords: Cavinena; grammatical functions; phonological background; reduplication patterns; transitivity; word classes

The study discusses the types, functions, and morphological processes of Reduplication in the Sumbawa Besar dialect. Data was taken from recorded conversation, which naturally occurred among the native speakers of Sumbawa Besar Dialect. The native were also interviewed to gain deeply information. Finding of this study describes some types of Reduplication in Sumbawa Besar Dialect namely full Reduplication, partial Reduplication, and reduplication variation of phoneme. In full Reduplication, the word is fully repeated without any additional morpheme or phoneme to the base word. For example, the base word ‘lao’ (slow) is fully reduplicated becomes ‘lao-lao’ (slowly). Partial Reduplication is partly the repetition of the base word. For example, ‘Barema’ (together) is the base form that is reduplicated by repeating the last phoneme to become ‘Barema-rema’. ‘Barema’ is the base and ‘rema’ is its phoneme which is repeated to form Reduplication. Reduplication variation of phoneme is the type of Reduplication which combines two different word classes and meaning to create meaningful Reduplication. As example, ‘sedo-gaso’ (supplies). ‘sedo’ is the first base word and the second word is ‘gaso’. Those are combined to create Reduplication becomes ‘sedo-gaso’ (supplies). Function of Reduplication in Sumbawa Besar Dialect was to change word classes as verb is changed into noun and change singular form to plural form of the noun. In example, ‘Mangan’ (eat) is the word class of verb which is changed into the word class of noun ‘Mangan’-‘Mangan’ (a picnic) in its Reduplication. In another example, the word Anak (a child) is the singular form of noun is changed into plural form Anak-dadi (children) in its Reduplication.

Linguistic provides a set of devices to express referential and affective functions. Intensifier as a linguistic device is generally found in all languages and it has various linguistic forms. In Banyumas dialect, a substandard of Javanese language, intensifier is basically used to intensify something. Banyumas dialect or Banyumasan is primarily spoken along Serayu River. Banyumas dialect is different from Javanese language in respect of phonological features and lexical items. Speakers express their intensity by using several linguistic devices including lexical items and reduplication. General lexical items consist of bangѐt and pisan. bangѐt and pisan experience degree of modification as they are attached to non-binary properties predicate. Specific lexical items include rea, regeng, leder, njilep, cirut, lecit, kecu, kethuwek. Reduplication is realized into full reduplication and partial reduplication. Partial reduplication employs reduplication with vowel change and reduplication of the final syllable of the stem. Grammaticalization happens to Partial reduplication with vowel change. Data is gathered from 250 recorded conversations between male and female speakers containing intensifiers. As intensifier is among the most rapid of linguistic element, this article reveals the realization of intensifiers in Banyumas dialect.

Teaching and Learning Guide for: Grammatical Categories and Relations: Universality vs. Language‐Specificity and Construction‐Specificity

This paper investigates reduplication in Kodi, an under-documented and understudied language spoken in Sumba Island, Nusa Tenggara Timur Province, eastern Indonesia. Reduplication in Kodi shows various patterns that fall under two major types: full reduplication and partial reduplication. Full reduplication mostly involves reduplication of the entire disyllabic base. In partial reduplication, the salient patterns that are copied are initial parts (a syllable and a foot), an internal part (a syllable), or final parts (foot) of the base. Furthermore, the reduplication process serves to express salient semantic properties, such as verbal number or pluractionality, indirect noun pluralization, attenuation or numeral distributivity. It is argued that (i) stress determines the reduplication process in Kodi in that the syllable or foot which is reduplicated is predictable from the stress patterns, (ii) semantic context triggers reduplication processes, and (iii) the framework of the theory of (Generalized) Paradigm Function Morphology ((G)PFM) ( Stump 2001 , 2016 ; Stewart & Stump 2007 ; Spencer & Stump 2013 ; Spencer 2013 ; Nikolaeva & Spencer 2019 ) can satisfactorily capture how stress determines the reduplication of the base and how semantic context triggers the reduplication process. This study provides additional evidence in support of the (G)PFM theory, which can arguably be extended to handle complex reduplicative patterns beyond Kodi.

This is a reference grammar of Munya, a Tibeto-Burman language spoken in the western part of Sichuan province in China. The data that this thesis draws from were collected during a one-year immersion fieldwork and are analyzed within the framework of Basic Linguistic Theory. This study covers the core aspects of the language, including phonetics and phonology, morphology, word classes, grammatical categories, clause structures, and discourse and pragmatics. Munya has a fairly large phoneme inventory, with forty consonants and thirteen vowels. The language has a binary tonal contrast, a high tone and a low tone, and the two tones constitute a range of patterns. Morphological processes in Munya include cliticization, affixation, reduplication and vowel alternation. The language has a wide variety of vowel harmonies. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are open word classes and there are in addition eight closed classes. The major syntactic function of nouns is to function as arguments. They can take numeral classifiers and plural markers. The major syntactic function of verbs is to act as predicates. Most verbs can be morphologically analyzed as consisting of a root and a directional prefix. There are altogether seven directional prefixes in Munya. Verbs show person-number inflection and derivations of causative and pluractionality. The predominant person-number inflectional paradigm is first person singular, second person singular, and first or second person non-singular. Adjectives can modify nouns and function as predicates, and tend to be inherently reduplicated. There are ten cases in Munya. Core syntactic functions can be marked by the ergative case i, the absolutive case (in zero form), the genitive case ɣɛ, the dative case le and the experiential case ɣɛ. The patterns of alignment are different for different types of verbs. For control verbs, the pattern is basically ergative-absolutive, and for non-control verbs, the pattern is consistently nominative-accusative. There are three aspects, which are the stative aspect, the perfective aspect and the imperfective aspect. There are also three evidential markers, which are the direct evidential, the indirect evidential and the reported evidential. There are two egophorics in Munya. ŋo can only be used in context of first or second person subject and control predicate. nyi can occur with all persons and all types of predicates. Copula verbs in Munya can denote IDENTITY, LOCATION, EXISTENCE, and POSSESSION. The senses of LOCATION, EXISTENCE and POSSESSION can be expressed with one copula. Munya has multiple copula verbs of existence, the choice of which is determined by the semantics of the Copula Determining Referent (CDR), which can be realized as copula subject or copula complement. Some copulas have extended functions. When attached to copulas, the directional prefix tʰo - 'away from the speaker' can mark perfectiveness. Polar interrogatives and negations are expressed with prefixes on verbs or auxiliaries. Imperatives can be categorized into second-person imperative clauses and first person imperative clauses, and the former can be further classified into immediate imperative, future imperative and polite imperative. Munya has relative clauses and complement clauses, and the two types of structures are closely related to nominalization. Munya has indirect, direct, and semi-direct speech reports. In semi-direct speech report, the subject in the matrix clause and the embedded clause are co-referential, and the subject in the embedded clause needs to shift to the reflexive form. Meanwhile, the verb or auxiliary in the embedded clause inflects for the person-number of the subject before it is shifted. The narrative genre of Munya discourse features prevalent bridging constructions, including recapitulative linkage and summary linkage. In the first type of linkage, a dependent clause is used to recapitulate in verbatim or in close paraphrase the preceding clause, and in the second type, a clause containing a demonstrative anaphorically summarizes the content of a discourse unit, typically a paragraph. At the end of the thesis there is an appendix of a long story and a vocabulary of around 2,800 words.

Thao Triplication Robert Blust Abstract Following a brief review of Thao reduplication, instances of a more involved process termed "triplication" are presented and analyzed. It is concluded that while reduplication has a variety of functions with various lexical categories and may or may not be iconic, triplication functions only with verbs and is necessarily iconic. Triplication serves to increase the degree or intensity of the same semantic dimension invoked by reduplication. Another process termed "serial reduplication" functions only with numerals and involves two quite different semantic contributions to the resulting word. 1. Introduction. Despite the ubiquity of reduplication as a word-formation process in natural languages, triplication appears to be fairly unusual. Moreover, to my knowledge no bona fide case of quadruplication has ever been reported. The purpose of this note is to document the occurrence of productive triplication and at least minimal quadruplication in Thao, a moribund Austronesian language still spoken by about 15 elderly persons in the region of Sun-Moon Lake, central Taiwan. Passing reference to Thao triplication appears in Chang (1998:285), where examples based on ten different stems are given. However, a number of other instances of triplication have since been located in Blust (to appear), as well as a single case of unambiguous quadruplication.1 Before presenting the data that support this claim, a word is in order regarding definitions. When a speaker of Tok Pisin says Em i go go go go go 'He went on and on and on', are we speaking of a morphological process (in this case quintuplication) that is used in building words, or are we instead speaking of a syntactic device for modifying meaning? In this particular case it seems clear that the repetition of the verb has nothing to do with word-building, but is a syntactic means of expressing the continuation of an action. Cases such as this one, however, do suggest that the line between morphology and syntax may sometimes be hard to draw. All but one of the examples of triplication in Thao seem clearly to involve a word-building process. In many cases iteration of the base occurs in conjunction with affixation, and iteration itself may make use of more than one pattern in the [End Page 324] same base. Moreover, some words occur both in reduplicated and in triplicated form, with semantic nuances distinguishing the two. In many cases words formed by multiple iteration cannot be predicted from the general morphological or syntactic resources of the language, and so must be stored as separate lexical entries. In short, then, there is no a priori reason to doubt that the examples that will be given below are genuine instances of triplication, and in one instance, of quadruplication. 2. Thao Reduplication. In order to discuss triplication in Thao it will first be useful to have a concise overview of reduplication patterns in the language. Most of these are summarized in Chang (1998), which provides an analysis in terms of the constraint-based model of Optimality Theory. Chang (1998:279) recognizes 'three productive patterns of reduplication' in Thao: (1) full reduplication, (2) Ca- reduplication, and (3) rightward reduplication. The basic characteristics of each pattern are as follows: 2.1 Full Reduplication. In full reduplication "the base is maximally disyllabic, and if disyllabic, neither syllable may contain a complex onset (*Complex), and the first syllable is always open (No-Coda)." In other words, (1) full reduplication may apply either to monosyllables or to disyllables, but never to longer bases, (2) it may apply to monosyllables with an initial consonant cluster, but never to longer words in which any syllable has a complex onset, and (3) the reduplicated element invariably omits a consonant coda. In the majority of cases, full reduplications signal repetitive or continuative aspect in the verb and intensity in adjectives. Examples include: BASE REDUPLICATED FORM capu ma-capu-capu 'sweep/will sweep and sweep' puzi ma-puzi-puzi 'white/very white' tup kan tu-tup 'follow/follow persistently' canit c-m-ani-canit 'cry/cry often' dauk shi-dau-dauk 'stop/keep still' cpiq cpi-cpiq 'thresh/thresh repeatedly' braq kum-bra-braq 'hole/peck open, as a shell' fanuz fanu-fanuz 'wake up...

Summary The present paper deals with a classification of the parts of speech of the Korean language giving priority to syntactico-functional and distributional criteria, which is considered as useful for the purpose of foreign language teaching. Primary syntactic functions of the different word classes have been determined and the question of conversion (change of parts of speech) as well as entering of equivocal (homonymous) words or word forms, both of the same origin, into different word classes according to their different syntactic features has been discussed. Furthermore, correlations between syntactically defined word classes and their morphological features have been specified. As first step, lexical items have been divided into word classes having sentence value and not having sentence value, respectively. As second step, word classes lacking sentence value have been divided into those capable of functioning as an independent member of sentence and those functioning mainly adjunctionally as constituent of a member of sentence, the former as to their primary or prevailing syntactic functions (i.o. predicates, „actants“, „circonstants“) being subdivided into verbs, nouns and adverbs, respectively, and the latter consisting in adjectives (modifiers). Word classes endowed with sentence value consist of interjections and modal words.

This article is intended to investigate the reduplication processes of bahasa Dawan spoken by Dawan people in NTT Province by using the morphological distribution theory proposed by Framton in 2004. To complete the study, a qualitative research method had been chosen based on the consideration that the data were in the form of words. Those data were taken from the utterances spoken in Dawan’s traditional ceremony as the main data source. Besides, Tata Bahasa Dawan book played a role as the secondary data source. The data were collected by observation and studying the document. In observation, the researchers observed and recorded the utterances by using an android, however the document study was done by reading documents about Bahasa Dawan. The study result reveals that in bahasa Dawab there are three processes in reduplication, namely 1) full reduplication without affixation process, 2) full reduplication with affixation process, and 3) partial reduplication.

Reduplicated words are afascinating, and fun aspect of language. In many languages (nearly 85%)reduplication has been observed. Reduplication, as Charles Kauffman (2015)points out is a morphological process that through doubling a morphemeenhances, emphasizes, amplifies, enlarges, diminishes, adds number or changesverb tense – to bring about significant meaning changes or shades of meaning.In general, there are two basic forms – full reduplication and partialreduplication that each of them includes several forms. In this research, ourpurpose is identifying and introducing a variety of reduplication patterns inKurdish language. For this purpose we explored more than 700 samples ofreduplications in Kurdish language and categorized them in several sets. Wenoticed that frequentative, increased action, and plural action as the mostcommon semantic categories marked by reduplication in the samples. The studiesshow that this morphological process especially partial type causes somechanges in the meaning of resulting combinations. What is added to thereduplicant (base or root), in most cases, is meaningless. It also seems thiskind of words especially partial ones are used in informal language and anironic meaning is inferred by them.

The current paper aims to capture the properties of reduplication within the distributed morphology model (Halle and Marantz 1993, 1994; Embick and Noyer 2007; Siddiqi 2009; Embick 2010). Taking Standard Arabic (SA) as a representative, the article shows that SA, like many other languages, has both full and partial reduplication. Full reduplication repeats entire stems while partial reduplication doubles part of it. Rather than the available two analyses, i.e. the readjustment approach (Raimy 2000; Frampton 2009) and the affixation approach (Haugen 2008, 2010, 2011; Haugen and Harley 2010), the current paper provides a novel approach to the phenomenon of reduplication in the world languages. It argues that root consonants and vowels should be decomposed into non-phonetic distinctive features that undergo late insertion at PF. These non-phonetic distinctive features are supplied with sound items at PF in the same fashion that the terminal nodes with morphosyntactic features are fed with vocabulary items. This approach serves three purposes. It accounts for speech errors, captures the non-concatenative morphology in Semitic languages, and allows the reduplicant form to copy all the distinctive features of the roots, yielding instances of full reduplication. Instances of partial reduplication can be generated by root-sensitive impoverishment rules which target and delete some of the features of the stem or the reduplicant form.

One of the processes of word formation is reduplication which words or morphemes are repeated. This study focuses on reduplication in Jamee language. This descriptive qualitative study aims at finding out forms of reduplication and the meaning contained in the reduplication in Jamee. The data were collected through ethnographic interview by recording ten native speakers of the Jamee language who live in Labuhanhaji sub-district, South Aceh. They were chosen through purposive sampling. A total of 261 reduplication words were obtained during the interviews, and they were analysed using three stages; data reduction, data display and data verification. Based on the results of data analysis, it was found that there are four types of reduplication in the Jamee language: full reduplication, partial reduplication, lexicalized reduplication, and affixed reduplication. The study also shows that reduplication in Jamee language can be in the forms of verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and pronominals. Despite previous studies show that there is no infix in the Jamee language, hence it does occur in this study even though it is rarely used in this language. It is assumed that it may have come into the language through the borrowing from Bahasa Indonesia.

<p><em>Standard Indonesian/Malay</em>, <em>Melayu Papua </em>(<em>Papuan Malay) </em>and <em>Ambai </em>are Austronesian languages. Regarding Reduplication in three languages, it shows that reduplication occurs in noun, verb, adjective, adverb and numeral. The evidence shows that reduplication in numerals is only found in two languages; <em>Standard Indonesian/Malay </em>and <em>Papuan Malay. </em>Unlike <em>Standard Indonesian </em>and <em>Ambai</em>, <em>Papuan Malay </em>has three forms of reduplication: (1) full reduplication, (2) altered reduplication and (3) partial reduplication. As a result, reduplication of three languages shows that phonologically they differ in reduplication forms whereas in Optimality Theory (OT) analysis, these three languages have the same constraint; <em>FR>>Red=Ft</em>.</p>

The present paper focuses on reduplication in Mandar language. The data of this studywere gathered through observation and introspective methods, which included listening and getting involved in a conversation, recording, and note taking. The objective of this study is to reveal the forms, functions, and meanings of Mandarese reduplication. The results show that there are four forms of reduplication in Mandar: full reduplication, partial reduplication, reduplication with affixation process, and reduplication in combination with clitics. In Mandarese, reduplicated words can fill in the position of subject, predicate, object, and adverb. Reduplication process can change the meaning of the base words. Reduplicated words are generally plural. Other possible interpretations of reduplicated words are to indicate resemblance, simplicity, repetitive action, intensity, a collection of numbers, reciprocal action, the state of proximity.

The Boro-Garo (BG) sub-branch of the Tibeto-Burman (TB) language family consists of thirteen languages found in North East India, as well as across the border in Nepal and Bangladesh; these languages include Boro, Deuri, Dimasa, Tiwa, Riang, Kokborok, Kachari, Garo, Megam, A'tong, Koch, Rabha and Ruga. Though much work remains to be done on all the modern languages in the family, this paper attempts an initial reconstruction of the Proto-Boro-Garo (PBG) noun phrase (NP), as well as some NP categories.