Reducing Gender Inequality Through Women Political Participation and Female Labor Force: The OECD Case

Reduction in gender inequality has become a major component of development agendas, cited as a mechanism for improved access to health care, declining fertility rates, reduced poverty, and increased political and social participation of women. While women’s participation in the labor force is an essential component of increasing gender equity in the developing world, such participation can only be made possible under conditions that allow women to possess the level of autonomy and mobility necessary for engaging in the labor market. In this article, I explain that while women’s labor force participation is an essential component of gender equity, it is not the key to ensuring gender equality. To explain this, I examine India’s decline in women’s labor force participation rate (LFPR) despite its growing economy. I challenge arguments that rationalize that this decline is attributed to the U-shaped hypothesis, and I assert that this decline is associated with existing gendered notions of labor and persisting patriarchal and traditional values that discourage women from re-entering the labor force in the industrial and service sectors.

Women are key factors in any society. No doubt, their sidelining or exclusion in the political arena and other decision making process is a problem that cannot be overlooked or swallowed hook, line and sinker. In Rivers State, the Judiciary arm of government is on hold presently because of a female appointment into the office of the Chief Justice of the State. This development motivated the study which examined women participation in grass-root politics: A community development perspective. The study with a sample size of 500 respondents, identified economical disadvantage, phobia for political vices amongst others as barriers to women participation in Rivers State grass-root politics. On the influence of women participation in politics on community development, it was accepted that women participation in politics, will increase women commitment to community goals and objectives achievement, influence and promote policies and programmes for the advancement of the women. Based on these findings, the study recommended sensitization and continuous creation of awareness to inform women on the need to be economically empowered as a way of facilitating their entry and relevance into politics, which will hitherto enhance development of their communities.

CONTENTS List of Tables and Figures xxx Acknowledgments xxxs Chapter One Gender Inequality and Social Change in Japan and Taiwan 1 Chapter Two The Development of Women's Labor Market Experiences 000 Chapter Three Comparing Labor Market Structures and Workplace Dynamics 000 Chapter Four Patterns of Labor Exits among Women 000 Chapter Five Challenges from the Home Front 000 Chapter Six Returning to the Labor Force 000 Chapter Seven Higher Education and Gender Inequality 000 Chapter Eight Conclusion 000 Appendix A Description of the Data Sources 000 Appendix B Supplementary Tables 000 Notes 000 Bibliography 000 Index 000 [[starts on page vii]] TABLES AND FIGURES Tables 1.1. Comparison of Japan and Taiwan 000 2.1. Average number of jobs experienced throughout men's and women's employment careers 000 2.2. Distributions of current labor market locations by gender and frequency of employer changes 3.1. Occupational Distributions of the Female Labor Force in Japan and Taiwan 6.1. Description of Work Trajectories of Homemaking Women, Ages 25-60 B.1. Descriptive Statistics of the SSM and TSC Samples by Gender B.2. Ordinary Least Squares Regression Analysis of Log Annual Earnings B.3. Discrete-Time Event History Models Predicting Labor Force Exits at Any Point of Time B.4. Discrete-Time Event History Models Predicting Labor Force Exit upon Marriage B.5. Discrete-Time Event History Models Predicting Labor Force Exit around First Childbirth B.6. Discrete-Time Event History Models Predicting Labor Force Reentry B.7. Multinomial Logit Models Predicting Married Women's Current Work Status in Japan B.8. Multinomial Logit Models Predicting Women's Current Occupational Status B.9. Multinomial Logit Models Predicting Women's Current Organizational Locations B.10. Multinomial Logit Models Predicting Women's Current Employment Status Figures Annual economic growth rates in Japan and Taiwan, 1956-2005 000 Women's Labor Force Participation and Number of Children by Age Group Age Distributions of Brides and Mothers Giving Live Birth in 2004/2005 Attitudes Regarding Gender Roles in Japan and Taiwan Trends in Female Labor Force Participation During the Life Course Distributions of Women's Careers in Japan and Taiwan Proportion of Ever-Married Women Returning to the Labor Force by Various Ages Percentage of Workers with Experience of Within-Organizational Job Shifting by Current Occupation Job Mobility and Percent Changes in Annual Earnings Predicted Annual Earnings by Gender, Country, and Employment Status 3.1. Distribution of the Labor Force by Industry, 1951-2000 3.2. Unemployment and Nonfarm Labor Force Growth Rates, 1950-2000 3.3. Annual Increases in the Male Population of Working Age, 1950-2000 3.4. Comparisons of the Labor Force by Firm Size in Japan and Taiwan 4.1. Explanatory Framework 4.2. Occupational Effects on Ever-Married Women's Labor Force Exits at Various Times 4.3. Effects of Firm Size on Ever-Married Women's Labor Force Exits at Various Times 4.4. Relative Odds of Labor Force Exit of Public- to Private-Sector Employees 4.5. Effects of Individual Characteristics on the Likelihood of Exiting the Labor Force 4.6. Predicted Probabilities for Labor Force Exit in the Marriage Year 5.1. Percentage of Japanese Men at Home by Eight O'Clock on Weekdays 5.2. Percent Approval of Working Mothers with Young Children among Taiwanese Women, by Education 5.3. Trends of Male-Wage-to-Household-Spending Ratio and Family Size, 1965-2000 6.1. Labor Force Participation Rates of Seven Birth Cohorts at Various Ages 6.2. Estimated Probability of Labor Force Reentry, Hypothetical Cases 6.3. Comparison of Occupations before and after a Work Interruption 6.4. Comparison of Firm Size between the Female Labor Force and Women Reentrants 6.5. Comparison of Employment Status between the Female Labor Force and Women Reentrants 6.6. Effects of Postmarital Entry on Women's Current Work Status in Japan 7.1. School Systems in Japan and Taiwan 7.2. Estimated Advancement Rates to Various Educational Institutions among Taiwanese Middle- School Graduates, 1950-1998 7.3. Trends in Percent Female among Students in Tertiary Institutions 7.4. Trends in Percent Female Students Admitted to the University of Tokyo and National Taiwan University 7.5. Percentage of Students in Applied Science Programs by Educational Level in Taiwan 7.6. Percent Female Students in Four-Year Universities by University Ownership 8.1. Likelihood of Job Locations of Married versus Single Women 8.2. Comparisons of Japanese Women's Occupational Distributions 8.3. Percentage of Ever-Married, Working-Age Taiwanese Women in the Labor Force by Their First Occupation 8.4. Job Growth Rates by Gender and Employment Status in Japan, 1996-2007

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to investigate whether aggregate and sectoral disbursement of aid for trade (AfT) facilitates achieving gender equality and women empowerment in aid-recipient developing countries for the period 2005–2019.Design/methodology/approachThe study develops static and dynamic panel data and empirical specifications and employs fixed effects and generalised method of moments (GMM) estimation techniques to estimate the impact of aggregate AfT and different categories of AfT on women empowerment. The study uses the Gender Inequality Index (GII) and Global Gender Gap Index (GGI) as the proxy measures of SDG-5, where the higher (lower) value of GII (GGI) implies higher gender disparities and lower women empowerment, and vice versa.FindingsThe study finds that aggregate AfT and aid disbursement for the development of economic infrastructure, productive capability building and trade policy and regulations contribute significantly to achieve women empowerment by reducing gender inequalities concerning the labour force and political participation, education enrolment and better healthcare and by increasing gender gap index in relation to economic participation, educational attainment, health and survival and political empowerment. The impact of aggregate AfT and its different categories is found significant only in low- and lower-middle-income developing countries. The findings also indicate that the impact of AfT is not noticeably different across different regions of the world as well as the religious belief of the developing countries.Practical implicationsThe study recommends that more allocation of gender-responsive AfT, whether aggregated or disaggregated, significantly helps women empowerment and assists developing economies to achieve SDG-5.Originality/valueThis study is one of the few that investigate the impact of aggregate AfT on gender inequality and women empowerment. This is the foremost study that examines the effects of each individual category of AfT on women empowerment vis-à-vis SDG-5.

The relationship between gender inequality and economic growth has become one of the most interesting and debated issues both in the academic literature and the policy arena. The aim of this study is to investigate how gender inequalities in the labour force participation (LFP) in North Cyprus undermine the per capita output of the country. Thus, the study is designed to estimate the simulation of a possible increase in per capita GDP based on 2011 data generated by the catch up of north female labour force participation rates to the south for the year 2011. Different age categories for female labour force are considered for the measurement. The age categories distributed within the working age population including female labour force population between the ages 15 and over. The age categories are divided into 5 groups as including the female participants between the age from 15 to 24, 25 to 34, 35 to 44, 45 to 54, and 55 and over. Data used is obtained from the State Planning Organization (SPO) of North Cyprus government for North Cyprus and from the World Bank database for South Cyprus. The North Cyprus labour force participation rates are adjusted to the south as suggested by Bryant et. al. (2004). Parallel to the previous literature, it is found that female labour force participation (FLFP) rate has a positive impact on GDP in North Cyprus. There would have been a 4% higher per capita GDP with the catch up of north to south FLFP rate which might be a substantial contribution towards decreasing the income gap between north and south.

The association of individual food security status with women's political participation, labor-force participation, and reproductive health: A cross-sectional analysis of gendered structural inequality in the League of Arab States.

Kadınların güçlenmesi, uluslararası/ulusal kurum ve kuruluşların kadınlara yönelik uygulanan sosyal politika ve projelerinde toplumsal cinsiyet eşitliğini sağlamada önemli bir hedeftir. Kadınların işgücü piyasasına ve istihdama katılma yoluyla güçlenerek, eşitlik, özgürlük ve kendine yetme yeteneği kazanmasını ifade eden ekonomik güçlenme temel önemdedir. Kadınların ekonomik alan başta olmak üzere tüm diğer alanlarda güçlenmesinde eğitim en önemli belirleyicidir. Ancak günümüzde eğitim alanında cinsiyet eşitsizliğinin önemli ölçüde azalmasına karşın işgücüne katılma ve iş fırsatlarında bu eşitsizliğin hâlâ çok büyük olduğu görülmektedir. Bu durum kadınların işgücü piyasasına katılım yoluyla ekonomik güçlenmesinde sorunlarının farklı dinamiklerine işaret etmektedir. Bunlar, işgücü piyasasındaki sosyo-kültürel ve yapısal faktörlerin kadınlara dayattığı temel kısıtlamalardır. 
 Bu çalışmanın amacı, sosyo-kültürel ve yapısal faktörler temelinde işgücü piyasasında kadınların ekonomik güçlenme süreci önündeki sorunları nedenleriyle ortaya koymaktır. Çalışmada elde edilen veriler, toplumsal cinsiyet temelli sosyokültürel normlar, işgücü piyasasının katmanlaşmış iş ayrımı yapısı, ücretsiz çalışmanın eşit olmayan yükü, yetersiz ve pahalı çocuk bakım hizmetleri gibi sosyo-kültürel ve yapısal sorunların kadınların ekonomik güçlenmesini engellediğini göstermiştir. Söz konusu bu sorunlar ekonomik güçlenmede önemli olan kadınların istihdama katılma ve iş tercihi kararlarında seçim yapma kapasitesini, özgürlüğünü ve özerkliğini sınırlamaktadır. Bu sorunların yol açtığı kısıtlılıklar çerçevesinde kadınların işgücü piyasasına erişimleri yetersiz kalmakta, işgücü piyasasında çalışma biçimleri ve koşulları olumsuz olmaktadır. Sosyo-kültürel ve yapısal engellerin varlığı yüzünden istihdama katılma, kadınlar için ekonomik güçlenme sağlamadığı gibi evdeki/toplumdaki güçsüzlüğünün istihdamda da devam etmesi durumunu getirmektedir. Kadını ekonomik güçlendirmeyi amaçlayan politikalarda, sadece kadınların eğitimlerini yükseltmek gibi tek bir hedefe odaklan(ıl)mamalıdır. Bu politikalarda aynı zamanda sosyo-kültürel ve yapısal faktörlerin de dikkate alınması, bu faktörlerin yol açtığı sorunları ortadan kaldırmak hedefine de yönelmesi kritik önemdedir.

The aim of this research is to analyze and offer strategies to increase women's political participation in Islamic societies. The benefit of this research is to increase awareness in Islamic communities about the importance of gender equality in participating in politics and to increase women's political participation in Islamic communities. The theory used in this research is the social construction theory of gender. This research uses descriptive qualitative methods to analyze data related to gender inequality in political participation in Islamic communities. Data was collected through interviews with several informants who are experienced in Islamic politics and society. The research results show that gender inequality in political participation in Islamic communities is visible in several aspects. First, women are still given less opportunities to participate in the political decision-making process. Second, women still experience discrimination in accessing information and resources needed for political participation. Third, women still experience stigma and stereotypes that prevent them from participating in politics. The suggestions and recommendations in this research, such as increasing awareness, developing resources, eliminating stigma and stereotypes, and developing partnerships, are expected to help overcome gender inequality in political participation in Islamic communities.

Article 2 of Law Number 7 of 2008 concerning Political Parties jo. Article 173 Paragraph 2 of Law Number 7 of 2018 concerning General Elections mandates that political parties must include at least 30% women in their management and establishment; however, the practice of this target is not being met. The problem of this research focuses on the low participation of women in politics, both according to positive law and Islamic law, as well as the involvement of women in politics in the Nagan Raya DPRK through a fiqh siyasah analysis. This study aims to identify the level of women's political participation from the perspective of law and Islamic law and to explore the factors influencing women's political involvement in Nagan Raya. The research uses a qualitative descriptive method with a statutory approach and descriptive analysis. The research findings indicate that women's participation and position in politics are critical to the effectiveness of their role in policy formulation and decision-making within public institutions. The lack of women's participation in politics is due to the deeply ingrained patriarchal culture in society, which results in gender inequality between men and women. Women's representation in parliament to advocate for their rights and interests in decision-making or policy formulation remains very low. The contribution of this research is to provide insights into the importance of women's involvement in politics and its impact on creating more inclusive policies. This study also highlights the need to address social and cultural barriers to increasing women's political participation in Indonesia. .

Purpose: To explore the role of Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) in enhancing women's political participation in leadership positions in local government elections in Tanzania. Methodology: The study used realism philosophy through which qualitative approach was engaged. It employed phenomenology design and in-depth interview, semi-structured interview, focus group discussion and documentary review to collect data. It engaged the sample size of 30 participants who were selected by using purposive sampling techniques. In-depth interview data were analyzed with the help of content analysis and presented by means of words, phrases and quotations; the structured interview data were classified, tallied, counted and computed into percentages and presented in the form of figures, tables and percentages; and focus group discussion were analysed by establishing the criteria to be used in identifying the data. Findings: The study revealed that CCM party enhanced women's political participation for leadership positions in local government elections by recruiting, nominating and electing women candidates; and developing competency of women candidates. Unique Contribution to Theory, Policy and Practice: The study recommended that CCM party should enhance women's political participation for leadership positions in local government elections by creating and promoting conditions and opportunities that can lead women to aspire for political office.This study contributed to Liberal Feminism Theory by highlighting how official and non-official institutions within political parties promulgated inequalities in gender. In terms of policy, policymakers could use the results of the study to design training programmes for women candidates that incentivize gender-balanced accounts. In practice, the study equipped civil society organizations, non-governmental organizations, political parties, and activists with actionable approaches to enhance women's political participation.

ABSTRACTThe global nonattainment of the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 5 indicates the issue of rising gender inequality. The educated women shying away from the labor force is worsening it. The institutional and political dynamics of an economy might shape the female labor force participation. A gender‐inclusive policy environment involving these factors should drive the educated women in joining the labor force. The female political representation might shape this policy dynamics. However, the absence of a benchmark policy framework is restraining the realization of this objective. The present study has attempted to develop this policy framework by analyzing the aforesaid dynamics across 125 countries over 1990–2020. The study outcomes obtained via elasticity modeling show that realigning the institutional and political dynamics is necessary to ensure the labor force participation of educated women. The women political participation is found to catalyze this policy objective. The study outcomes are utilized to develop a policy framework for attaining the objectives of SDG 5.

Participation is one of the fundamental aspects in the course of the Democratic administration. In this study, the Women's Political Participation in the Prosperous Justice Party (PKS) is quite high. It can be seen from their involvement in the management of the party. But the discussion of women's issues in politics and always have ups and downs of a women's political participation in the City field. From the results of this research note that women's political involvement or participation in the MCC is quite high. It is caused by several factors, including the most dominant cultural factors, and factors are less known women from the MCC. To keep pace with the need to understand the role and the authority held and used for the progress of women. The problems described in this study is the low level of political participation of women in Medan City Council 2009-2014 period, as pemeenuhan quota of 30% women candidates who have not really seriously implemented by parties that exist in Indonesia.

This study aims to analyze the impact of the increase in the Provincial Minimum Wage on gender inequality in Eastern Indonesia. The data used is secondary data from the Central Statistics Agency (BPS) for the period 2017-2022, covering 14 provinces in the region. The analysis was carried out using panel data regression with the Random Effect Model (REM) method. The results showed that: The Provincial Minimum Wage had a negative impact on gender inequality in Eastern Indonesia during 2017-2022, meaning that any increase in the minimum wage could reduce gender inequality. Poverty negatively affects gender inequality, so an increase in poverty reduces gender inequality. The Women's Labor Force Participation Rate has a positive impact on gender inequality, so increasing women's participation in the labor force increases gender inequality. Economic growth negatively impacts gender inequality, which means that increased economic growth reduces gender inequality in Eastern Indonesia.

This paper describes how the composition of the labor force changes with economic development. It considers recent trends in women's labor force participation and the type of jobs held in various sectors as national per capita income increases. The paper notes that women are more likely to work in the family or informal labor market if the labor costs to firms exceed the opportunity costs of female labor to family enterprises. Firms are at a relative disadvantage compared with families in the employment of less experienced and less skilled labor, presumably because their labor costs are affected by such regulations as minimum wage, social insurance premiums and limits on firing. In Asia and Africa, an increase in the proportion of employment in firms within the major sectors accounts for most of the rapid growth in women's overall share of wage employment. In Latin America, however, growth in the proportion of firm employment has been slower than elsewhere, and the share of women in wage employment has even fallen overall in several countries. It is not unreasonable to assume that women have lost more than men from market regulations and distortions, but little research has addressed this proposition. If it is true, however, these interventions in the labor market may be responsible for slowing women's transition from nonmarket and family work to firm employment. This in turn may affect the rate and structure of economic growth.

IntroductionFew studies have measured gender inequality at levels lower than the country. We sought to develop neighbourhood indicators of gender inequality, and assess their ability to capture variability in gender inequality across Québec, Canada.MethodsAggregate 2001 census data for 11,564 neighbourhoods were obtained for men and women. Twelve indicators of gender inequality representing demographic/household characteristics, education, income, work/leisure, and political participation were selected. Neighbourhood-level gender inequality scores were computed for each indicator, and examined across parts of Québec (metropolitan areas, mid-sized cities, rural areas). Monte Carlo simulations were used to assess the ability of indicators to capture heterogeneity in gender inequality across neighbourhoods.ResultsMale-dominant neighbourhood-level gender inequality tended to be present for average employment income, labour force participation, employment rate, and employment in managerial positions. Female-dominant gender inequality tended to be present for divorce, single-headed households, and participation in unpaid housework, child and elderly care. Neighbourhood-level gender inequality tended to vary across metropolitan areas, mid-sized cities, and rural areas. Gender inequality scores also varied within these geographic areas. For example, there was greater income-related gender inequality in high than low income neighbourhoods. Monte Carlo simulations suggested that the variation in gender inequality across neighbourhoods was greater than expected with chance alone.ConclusionNeighbourhood-level gender inequality tended to be present in Québec, and varied across parts of the province. Greater awareness of and research on neighbourhood-level gender inequality may be warranted to inform gender policies in Québec and other nations.