Record of Stiff-legged Defensive Behavior in Rhinella achavali (Anura: Bufonidae)

Postattack deimatic display in the mountain katydid, Acripeza reticulata

Eye Diseases of Sheep and Goats

Predation is a key driver of phenotypic diversification with prey having evolved sets of correlated anti-predator traits. Changes in anti-predator traits can be studied on an evolutionary as well as on a developmental timescale. Using a common garden setup, we studied inter- and intraspecific correlations of behavioural and morphological defences in four damselfly species that either occur in habitats dominated by predatory fish (fish habitats) or fishless habitats by raising larvae either with predatory fish or in a control treatment. We found inter- as well as intraspecific trait compensation (negative correlations) between behavioural and morphological defences. Compared to fishless habitat species, fish habitat species invested more in behavioural defences and less in morphological defences. This was mirrored by fish habitat species investing more in behavioural defences and less in morphological defences when reared with predatory fish whereas fishless habitat species invested less in morphological defences only. Our results emphasise the role of context-specific combinations of defensive traits to avoid predation. We suggest, considering changes in multiple correlated traits on different timescales when studying the evolution of anti-predator traits.

Many organisms show predator-induced behavioural and morphological phenotypic plasticity. These defence mechanisms are often expressed simultaneously. To estimate the relative importance of these two defences, we conducted a laboratory experiment using tadpoles of the common frog (Rana temporaria) as prey and Aeshna dragonfly larvae as predators. We first raised tadpoles in the presence and absence of caged predators to induce differences in defensive morphology, and then conducted free ranging predator trials in environments that were either with or without the presence of predation cues to induce differences in defensive behaviour. This 2 × 2 design allowed us to separate the effects of inducible morphology from inducible behaviour. Caged predators induced deeper bodies and tailfins and reduced activity levels in tadpoles. The time to first capture was shortest in tadpoles without morphological or behavioural defences. Tadpoles with a behavioural defence had a significantly longer time to first capture. Tadpoles with only antipredator morphology tended to have a longer time to first capture as compared to those without any induced defences. This treatment also had a higher number of injured tadpoles as compared to other treatments, suggesting that inducible morphology facilitates predator escape due to the ‘lure effect’. However, tadpoles with both behavioural and morphological defences did not have a longer time to first capture as compared to tadpoles with only morphological or behavioural induced defences. Our results suggest that both behavioural and morphological antipredator responses contribute to reduced capture efficiency by predators, but their simultaneous expression did not have any additive effect to the time of first capture and survival, and that the morphology response is most effective when tadpoles are active.

Correction to: 'How do developmental and parental exposures to predation affect personality and immediate behavioural plasticity in the snail Physa acuta?'

Narino department has great potential for beekeeping activity as its diverse climate supports the growth of a wide variety of melliferous flora. Nonetheless, the beekeeping activity in this region plays a minor role in the agricultural sector. The low development of this activity can be partly explained by the lack of technology transfer, limited unionization, and lack of knowledge of bee handling, diseases, and defensive behavior. Objectives: To assess the defensive, hygienic, and productive behavior of Apis mellifera for queen selection and breeding in the Narino department. Methods: The study was conducted in four towns located in the Narino department. Five hives in production were selected from one apiary in each town. The variables assessed were: defensive behavior, hygienic behavior, varroa infestation in worker brood, varroa infestation in adult bees, and honey production. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was calculated between each of these variables and the climatic factors reported by each town during the assessment period. Results: The removal of dead bees ranged between 82.6% and 90.6% in the four apiaries; hence, the hives were considered to be hygienic. A high level of varroa infestation in adult bees was observed in one of the apiaries (8.38%), and the defensive behavior was remarkably high in all the apiaries assessed. Conclusions: Honey production showed a negative correlation with precipitation (P < 0.001), suggesting the adverse effect of increased precipitation on honey production.

The ability to adjust defensive behavior is critical for animal survival in dynamic environments. However, neural circuits underlying the modulation of innate defensive behavior remain not well-understood. In particular, environmental threats are commonly associated with cues of multiple sensory modalities. It remains to be investigated how these modalities interact to shape defensive behavior. In this study, we report that auditory-induced defensive flight behavior can be facilitated by somatosensory input in mice. This cross-modality modulation of defensive behavior is mediated by the projection from the primary somatosensory cortex (SSp) to the ventral sector of zona incerta (ZIv). Parvalbumin (PV)-positive neurons in ZIv, receiving direct input from SSp, mediate the enhancement of the flight behavior via their projections to the medial posterior complex of thalamus (POm). Thus, defensive flight can be enhanced in a somatosensory context-dependent manner via recruiting PV neurons in ZIv, which may be important for increasing survival of prey animals.

The ability to adjust defensive behavior is critical for animal survival in dynamic environments. However, neural circuits underlying the modulation of innate defensive behavior remain not well-understood. In particular, environmental threats are commonly associated with cues of multiple sensory modalities. It remains to be investigated how these modalities interact to shape defensive behavior. In this study, we report that auditory-induced defensive flight behavior can be facilitated by somatosensory input in mice. This cross-modality modulation of defensive behavior is mediated by the projection from the primary somatosensory cortex (SSp) to the ventral sector of zona incerta (ZIv). Parvalbumin (PV)-positive neurons in ZIv, receiving direct input from SSp, mediate the enhancement of the flight behavior via their projections to the medial posterior complex of thalamus (POm). Thus, defensive flight can be enhanced in a somatosensory context-dependent manner via recruiting PV neurons in ZIv, which may be important for increasing survival of prey animals.

Many animals have two basic traits for avoiding being killed by a predator: behavioral modification and morphological defense. We examined the relationship between antipredator behavior and morphological defense in larvae of three closely related dragonfly species within the genus Leucorrhinia. The three species differ with regard to their morphological defense as expressed in the length of the larval abdominal spines. Results showed that longer abdominal spines provided protection against an attacking fish predator (perch) because the probability of being rejected after an attack was significantly higher in the species with the longest abdominal spines. In contrast to other studies, the species with the strongest morphological defense did not show the least behavioral predator avoidance. Instead, the species with intermediate morphological defense showed the least predator behavioral avoidance. The results suggest that the Leucorrhinia system is a mixture of trait cospecialization (a positive correlation between antipredator behavior and morphological defense) and trait compensation (a negative correlation between antipredator behavior and morphological defense). Differences in the relationship between morphological and behavioral defense between species might be related to abundance patterns of the three species in lakes with and without fish predators.

By recording simultaneous spike trains from fear-responsive basal amygdala (BA) and place-responsive dorsal hippocampus (dHPC) neurons in rats foraging for food in a risky predatory situation, a novel BA-dHPC circuit coding mechanism for interfacing danger and place information was revealed.

Behavioural patterns often differ consistently across individuals and are linked to fitness. In species with biparental care, the defence behaviour of both parents can affect reproductive success through offspring survival. In addition to the intensity of defence behaviour by both pair members, the similarity in this behaviour among parents may affect offspring survival. However, few studies have investigated the relative impact of both the intensity and similarity of defence behaviour. Here, we examined nest defence behaviour of males and females during the incubation stage in an Arctic population of barnacle geeseBranta leucopsis. We calculated the repeatability of defence behaviour to test whether this behaviour is consistent within individuals and investigated how it is associated with age. In addition, we investigated how daily survival rate (DSR) of the nests until hatching is associated with nest defence behaviour and age of the parents, as well as the effect of parent similarity in nest defence behaviour as an emergent trait of the pair bond. Both male and female defence behaviour were highly repeatable. The ages of both partners within breeding pairs were positively related, but age was only significantly associated with defence behaviour in females. Further, we found high similarity in defence behaviour within breeding pairs, but the similarity and intensity of defence behaviour within breeding pairs did not predict DSR. Finally, male defence behaviour positively predicted DSR, but female defence behaviour and male and female age did not. Our results suggest that nest protection is adaptive in males but behavioural similarity of pair members does not enhance nest survival, indicating behavioural similarity itself is not adaptive but rather a by‐product of different effects.

The goal of this study was to develop a method for examining children's expectations about the short‐term consequences of defensive interpersonal behaviour. We employed the theory of interpersonal defence (Dahmen &amp; Westerman, in press; ; ), an interpersonal reconceptualization of defence processes, as the framework for this method. We developed a two‐part procedure for eliciting children's responses to closed‐ended and open‐ended questions about interpersonal vignettes presented in storyboard format, and we employed this method in a preliminary investigation with a sample of 62 intellectually gifted boys and girls aged 7–8 and 10–11. The results showed that the participants understood that defensive interpersonal behaviours affect the likelihood that feared and wished‐for short‐term outcomes will occur. Participants demonstrated that they understood that people behave defensively in order to avoid feared consequences and nondefensively in order to pursue wished‐for outcomes. Findings also indicated that older participants understood that a person is more likely to behave defensively in highly conflict‐ridden situations. The results suggest that our method provides the basis for research that complements previous studies of children's understanding of how intrapsychic defence mechanisms regulate a person's affective experience. Future research using this method could investigate the role of beliefs about defensive behaviour in the development of behaviour problems.

Dogs in shelters are exposed to a new environment, and to permanent stress factors, they interact with foreign dogs and persons. These factors lead to behaviour disorders, including the occurrence of a defensive aggressive behaviour. This type of aggression will be observed in individuals which are fearful, insecure in certain circumstances; that is why, as a means of protection, they will use aggression. Theses tests aim to create an inventory and an identification of behaviours specific to aggressive defensive dogs, as a result of their being accommodated in shelters. This study includes a number of 20 dogs, selected from a number of 200 dogs living permanently in a shelter in the city of Timisoara. Experiments were registered with a video camera; the images were processed and interpreted. Defensive behaviour evaluation was based on a test comprising several criteria. During the first test, the evaluator tried to establish a visual contact with the dog. The second defensive behaviour evaluation criteria consisted in the attempt to approach the dog and to communicate verbally with it. During the third test, the physical contact between evaluator and dog was sought, through stroking.During the first stage, a number of 10 dogs immediately established eye contact with the evaluator, 5 avoided eye contact, 2 dogs accepted visual contact but refused physical contact, 3 dogs stepping away from the evaluator. During the second stage, 12 dogs responded favourably, 5 dogs allowed the touch, 3 dogs not allowing the touch. During the last stage, 11 dogs have accepted stroking, showing no signs of aggressiveness stemming from fear, 4 accepted the touch, 5 refused this type of interaction.Due to the environmental conditions in shelters, these dogs may respond in an unfavourable way, displaying defensive aggression. Through body language knowledge and defensive dog behaviour identification, one can avoid unpleasant situations when these dogs become aggressive.

Defensive behaviors are a response to immediate and potential threats in the environment, including abiotic and biotic threats. Subterranean rodents exhibit morphological and physiological adaptions for life underground, and they will seal with mounds and additional plugs when their burrow opened. However, little is known about the factors driving this defensive behavior. In this study, we selected a subterranean rodent, plateau zokor (Myospalax fontanieri), as a species to investigate (both in the laboratory and in the field) the possible factors responsible for burrow-sealing behavior. Our results showed that: (1) In the laboratory, the burrow-sealing frequency of plateau zokor in response to five factors were as follows: oxygen (52.63%) > light (34.58%) > temperature (20.24%) > gas flow (6.48%) > sound/control (0%). Except for light, the burrow-sealing frequency in response to other factors was significantly lower than that in response to oxygen (P < 0.05). (2) Burrow-sealing behavior in response to each treatment did not differ significantly between males and females in the laboratory experiment. (3) In the field, during the animal’s active periods in both the cold and warm season, the burrow-sealing frequency under the oxygen treatment was higher than that under the light and temperature treatments. Plateau zokors were found not to be sensitive to these treatments during their inactive periods during both the cold and warm season. (4) The latency to reseal the burrow showed no obvious differences between each treatment both in the laboratory and in the field. In conclusion, the main factor that influences the burrow-sealing behavior of plateau zokors is the variation in oxygen concentration, and this defensive behavior is related to their activity rhythm.

Different lines of host defense against parasites may be antagonistic or have additive benefits. For example, nest defense and egg rejection behaviors are important adaptations against brood parasitism in hosts that have been subject to much attention and numerous studies. However, the relationship between these 2 defensive behaviors within a single host population has hardly been elucidated. We investigated the correlation between nest defense and egg recognition behavior in Brown-breasted Bulbuls (Pycnonotus xanthorrhous) by conducting dummy and artificial-parasitism experiments. Our results illustrate that in Brown-breasted Bulbuls, rejecters of parasite eggs were more aggressive toward a cuckoo dummy than acceptors, which was opposite to the results of a previous study. We discuss the possible explanations for consistent and antagonistic defenses at the individual level of hosts and suggest that accumulated experience, sufficient to recognize harmful objects, may account for our results in Br...