Reconstructing Hierarchy through Treaties and Regulations: Qing’s East Asian Diplomacy in the Late 19th Century

Although at least thirty-five women were buried in the earlier necropolis at Vron during the period between ca. 370 / 75 and ca. 435 / 45, only three of them were equipped with typically Germanic brooches or other elements of dress. Such a low proportion of women whose dress was secured according to the Germanic custom by means of brooches, is not unusual in the burial sites of Northern Gaul, and indeed clearly distinguishes these from the burial grounds on the right bank of the Rhine in free Germania, where practically all the women used one or more brooches to fasten their clothing, and were subsequently buried with them. The evidence from Vron, as from other comparable military burial sites to the west of the Rhine (e.g. Oudenburg, Vermand, Vireux-Molhain), attesting how few women were buried with brooch jewellery , may indicate either that in actual fact very few Germanic women had accompanied their men-folk into Northern Gaul, or that the majority of women of barbaric origin had, in the process of cultural assimilation, abandoned their exotic costume at a very early date and now favoured Gallo-Roman dress. Among the typically Germanic dress ornaments observed at Vron, one may distinguish five different brooch types and one hairpin type, analysed below: 1. Simple cross-bow brooches belong to the most frequently attested and geographically widespread group of Germanic women's brooches in the 4 th and 5 th centuries (mid-4 th to mid-5 th centuries) between the Elbe and the Loire (fig. 2). They are almost invariably made of bronze, as are the two examples from Grave 163A and Pit 9. The brooch from Grave 163A, worn as a single item, is remarkable for its greater length, its short spring, and upper chord. These rather unusual features appear most frequently in the simple cross-bow brooches from the Lower Rhine and Westphalia. There, this unusual form may be dated chiefly to the first half of the 5 th century. This corresponds to the chronology proposed by Cl. Seillier, who attributes, on other evidence, Grave 163A to his Phase 3 (= ca.415/20-435/45). 2. Cross-bow brooches with a trapezoid foot-plate represent a further typological development of the simple cross-bow brooch. The silver brooch from Grave 242A possesses in addition a beaded wire decoration on the bow, together with a stamped metal plaque covering the trapezoid foot-plate, features which enable it to be classed with the Vert-la-Gravelle variant (fig. 3). This form of brooch, known almost exclusively by the archaeological evidence from the left bank of the Rhine is probably to be interpreted as the product of workshops in Northern Gaul, which are known to have manufactured other types of Germanic costume ornaments for the wives of foederati (see below). Comparison with the very similar brooches from Grave 7 at Vert-la-Gravelle (Mame) enable this example from Vron to be dated at the earliest to the last third of the 4 th century or to the turn of the century. The location of the inhumation within the burial ground suggests a date within Seillier's Phase 2 (= ca. 390-415/20). 3. The bronze hairpin from the same grave, over 17 cm long, with a small round head, belongs to the Fecamp type (fig. 4), known chiefly from the Germanic female burials and other archaeological evidence found in Westphalia and the Lower Rhine.

This paper looks at the attempts to found marine stations in Britain during the late 19th century and seeks to show how a fuller understanding of these events, and their success or failure, can be gained by looking both at the scientific background to the movement and at the broadly similar problems that faced their founders. The survival of early marine stations depended largely on how successfully they balanced scientific objectives with the applied work which was the price of government support. Those stations that continued into the twentieth century did so mostly by abandoning pure research in marine zoology and by concentrating on fisheries problems; only these attracted the grants essential for their survival. This was a turn of events unforeseen when the foundation of marine stations was discussed in the 1870's but ideas changed rapidly in the early 1880's when it became apparent that progress could be made only by accepting a different orientation. This paper looks at how official policy towards science in Britain affected oceanography and other aspects of marine science during the late 19th century, and how scientists hoped that the foundation of marine stations would fulfil both a scientific and a practical need for institutional bases for marine research. However, competition for scarce resources created tension and rivalry between institutions from which few escaped unscathed. The underlying reasons for such problems cannot generally be dealt with extensively in the histories of individual stations but they contribute much to our understanding of how such institutions developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The paper concludes with a brief review of individual stations, particularly those in Scotland.

As a nation grounded in the appropriation of Native land and the destruction of Native peoples, Christianity has helped define what it means to be “American” from the start. Even though neither the Continental Congress nor the Constitutional Convention recognized a unifying set of religious beliefs, Protestant evangelicalism served as a force of cohesion that helped Americans rally behind the War for Independence. During the multiple 19th-century wars for Indian removal and extermination, Christianity again helped solidify the collapse of racial, class, and denominational categories behind a love for a Christian God and His support for an American nation. Close connections between Christianity and American nationhood have flared in popularity throughout American history, particularly during wartime. In the late 19th and 20th centuries, the closely affiliated religious and racial categories of Christianity and whiteness helped solidify American identity. However, constructions of a white, Christian, American nation have always been oversimplified. Slavery, land-grabbing, and the systematic genocide of Native peoples ran alongside the creation of the American myth of a Christian nation, founded in religious freedom. Indeed, enslavement and settler colonialism helped contrive a coherence to white Protestantism during a moment of profound disagreement on church government, theology, and religious practice. During the antebellum period, white Protestants constructed a Christian and American identity largely in opposition to categories they identified as non-Christian. This “other” group was built around indigenous, African, Muslim, and sometimes-Catholic religious beliefs and their historic, religious, and racial categorizations as “pagans,” “heathens,” and “savages.” In the 19th-century republic, this “non-Christian” designation defined and enforced a unified category of American Protestants, even though their denominations fought constantly and splintered easily. Among those outside the rhetorical category of Protestantism were, frequently, Irish and Mexican Catholics, as well as Mormons. Enforced segregation of African Americans within or outside of white Protestant churches furthered a sense of Protestant whiteness. When, by the late 19th century, Protestantism became elided with white middle class expectations of productive work, leisure, and social mobility, it was largely because of the early 19th-century cultural associations Protestants had built between white Protestantism, republicanism, and civilization. The fact that the largest categories of immigrants in the late 19th century came from non-Protestant cultures initially reified connections between Protestantism and American nationalism. Immigrants were identified as marginally capable of American citizenship and were simply considered “workers.” Protestant expectations of literacy, sobriety, social mobility, and religious practice helped construct Southern and Eastern European immigrants as nonwhite. Like African Americans, New Immigrants were considered incapable of fulfilling the responsibilities of American citizenship. Fears that Catholic and Jewish immigrants, like African Americans, might build lasting American institutions to change the cultural loci of power in the country were often expressed in religious terms. Groups such as the No-Nothing Party, the Ku Klux Klan, and the Immigration Restriction League often discussed their nationalist goals in terms of historic connections between the nation and Anglo-Protestantism. During the Great Depression and the long era of prosperity in the mid-20th century, the Catholic and Jewish migrants gradually assimilated into a common category of “whiteness” and American citizenship. However, the newly expansive category of postwar whiteness also further distanced African Americans, Native Americans, Asian Americans and others as perpetual “foreigners” within a white, Protestant, Christian nation.

The incentive for writing this book was another book published by the Chemical Society about 60 years ago, titled British Chemists [1] that completely ignored women—as if there had not been any women among the chemists of earlier generations. The authors felt that the early women chemists in Britain, quite a few of them working already as early as the late 19th century, deserve credit. The book wholly justifies this. As the Introduction tells us, these women chemists rarely received recognition; most of them were unmarried and could never play a leading role in the profession. But they were most enthusiastic about and dedicated to chemistry—this is what must have given them the strength to fight all barriers. The first of these barriers was getting a secondary education (Chapter 1, ‘‘Setting the Scene’’) and then being accepted to a university. In secondary schools— as the Rayner-Canhams argue—throughout the early 20th century, there was ambivalence about why girls need an academic education at all. It was assumed that most girls would become wives and mothers and only a small minority would be interested in pursuing a career. Who would then be the curriculum aimed at? This reminds us of the American movie, Mona Lisa Smile, set in the 1950s in a rich private New England liberal arts college for women, where even some of the most intelligent and interested girls thought that their role in life was to be a good housewife and mother—and only that. If this was still the attitude in the United States in the 1950s, certainly it was even more so in the late 19th and early 20th century probably everywhere. It is quite astounding to read how relatively early, already in the late 19th century, the demand for university education appeared among women. The authors ascribe this to several factors. In the second half of the 19th century, several women’s organizations were established that stood up for higher education for middle-class women. In fact, middle-class women started to look much farther than ever before when planning their future. Several magazines supported this attitude. One example from an article in 1914 [2]: ‘‘Woman is taking to herself a new significance. She is discovering that she, as well as man, has another M. Hargittai (&) Materials Structure and Modeling Research Group of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, P.O. Box 91, 1521 Budapest, Hungary e-mail: hargittaim@mail.bme.hu

The article examines musical culture and education formation and development in the Tavria governorate in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This period in the Southern region of Ukraine is characterized as an era of social and cultural uplift, progressive changes in the educational system, and enhancing the role and place of music and singing in students’ education. Moreover, it is marked by increased attention of the governorate residents to the problems of musical and aesthetic education of children and youth, the growth of public and private educational initiatives, and the formation of general and professional music education.The article identifies the reasons for the greater intensity of the education system development in the Crimean districts compared to the mainland ones; it also provides statistical data on the people’s literacy and education rate in the Tavria governorate in the early 20th century. The article also explains the role of private musical institutions and the influence of the artistic intelligentsia, outstanding musicians and composers on the musical culture and education development in the region.The article highlights that in the late 19th century, Yalta became – to a certain extent – a cultural centre of the Tavria governorate due to its well-developed concert and theatre infrastructure. Yalta and Simferopol have become a focus of establishing public associations with outreach, organizational, musical and educational functions. Activities of the members of these musical societies in Crimean cities resulted in the opening of music courses and classes and one of the first people's music schools in the Russian Empire with free-of-charge tuition. Besides, they arranged public concerts, music evenings, and tours of prominent composers and musicians.The article provides a historical analysis of the establishment of branches of the Imperial Russian Musical Society (IRMS) in the Tavria governorate, the role of the IRMS in the concert, performance and educational activities, its impact on the cultural, educational and social processes in the South of Ukraine, in particular, the establishing the institution of a secondary level of professional musical education – the Simferopol Musical College.

The heights of lower- and upper-class English youth are compared to one another and to their European and North American counterparts in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The height gap between the rich and poor was the greatest in England, reaching 22cm at age 16. The poverty-stricken English teenagers were among the shortest for their age so far discovered in Europe or North America; in contrast, the English rich were the tallest in the world in their time: only 2.5cm shorter than today's US standard. Height of the poor declined in the late 18th century, and again in the 1830s and 1840s conforming to the general European pattern, while the height of the wealthy tended rather to increase until the 1840s and then levelled off. The results support the pessimistic view of the course of living standards among the ultra-poor in the Industrial Revolution period.

The aim of this study is to elaborate comparative portraits of Korean and Japanese beauty in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Six portraits of beauty in the Korean Joseon Dynasty (early 19th century) and 5 in Japanese Edo Dynasty (late 18th century) were analyzed. Twenty anthropometric items were applied to the measure of the features on each portrait and 18 proportional indices of the face were calculated. Among the 18 indices, Korean and Japanese beauty did not show any significant differences in 13, but in 5: 1) the ratio of eye fissure to intercanthal distance was greater in Japanese beauty; 2) eye inclination was greater in Japanese beauty; 3) the ratio of nasal width to intercanthal distance was greater in Japanese beauty; 4) the ratio of nasal and facial width was greater in Korean beauty; and 5) the ratio of vermilion size to mouth width was greater in Japanese beauty. It is assumed that Korean had narrower eye fissure, lower eye inclination, wider nasal ala, and thinner lip than what Japanese craved during that era.

Despite increasing research into changes in the discharge of the River Meuse, estimates of the river’s sediment yield are less forthcoming. Three published studies (in 1883, 1982, and 1987) have estimated suspended sediment yield at the Belgian-Dutch border; the latter two studies surmise that this increased substantially between the late 19th and 20th Centuries. In this paper a more recent and longer time-series of observed discharge and suspended sediment data (1995 – 2005) is used to estimate mean annual suspended sediment yield (ca. 386,000 Mg.a−1), and the results of the previous studies are revisited. New insights suggest that those studies do not in themselves provide evidence of increased sediment yield: the higher estimates in the late 20th Century could equally be due to interannual variability or methodological differences. Furthermore, there has been no significant increase in rainfall erosivity between the late 19th and 20th Centuries, and the effect of land use change over that time would have been to cause a decrease in suspended sediment yield, rather than an increase.

19세기 후반 이래 활발히 진행된 러시아 여성자선단체들의 활동은 당시 러시아 여성들이 처한 어려운 사회경제적 환경을 배경으로 그들에게 물질적 지원과 사회활동의 기회를 제공해 주는 것을 일차적인 목표로 설정하고, 우선 어려움에 처한 여성들을 구제하는데 적극 나섰다. 이들은 도시 여성 빈곤층에게 음식과 주거 등 생활필수품을 제공하고, 어린 아이들을 돌보았으며, 질병 예방 및 치료 등 시급한 의료 서비스 제공에도 나섰다. 또한 反알콜, 매춘척결, 순결운동 등 다양 한 사회계몽 운동도 벌였다. 나아가 이들 여성자선단체들은 교육지원 활동을 통 해 빈곤층 여성들에게 지식과 새로운 관념을 심어주고, 직업적 선택권의 폭을 넓혀 안정적 생활수준을 유지하게 하며, 그들에게 격하된 도덕ㆍ윤리적 수준을 높이려 하였다. 이러한 여성자선단체를 설립하고 주도적 역할을 한 것은 황후를 비롯 귀부인, 기업가 내지 대상인들의 부인들이었다. 19세기 후반 ‘여성자선활동’을 고무시킨 요인 중에 하나는 새로운 입법개혁을 통해 자선활동에 대한 법률적 제한이 완화되어 여성들도 합법적으로 여성자선단체를 조직하고 활동할 수 있는 법적 근거가 마련된 것이다. 여성자선단체들의 다양한 활동에도 불구하고, 황실가의 후원을 받는 일부 단체들을 제외하고는 대부분의 단체들은 기금의 부족과 체계적인 조직 그리고 운영의 미숙 등으로 어려움을 겪었다. 그럼에도 불구하고, 19세기 후반~20세기 초 여성 자선단체들의 활동은 사회 엘리트 상류계층의 사회적ㆍ도덕적 의무가 어떻게 현실 사회에 구현되었는가를 보여준 선례로서 충분히 가치가 있다 하겠다.The activities of Russian women charities, which have been active since the late 19th century, set the primary goal of providing them with material support and opportunities for social activities considering the difficult socioeconomic environment faced by Russian women at that time, and actively sought to save women in need. They provided necessities such as food and housing to the poor women in urban areas, took care of their young children, and provided urgent medical services such as disease prevention and treatment. They also launched various social enlightenment campaigns, such as ‘temperance movement,’ ‘prostitution eradication’ and ‘chastity movement’. In addition, these women’s charities tried to instill knowledge and new ideas to poor women, expand the scope of career options to maintain a stable living standard, and raise the moral and ethical standards lowered by them through educational support activities. It was the empress, ladies, businessmen and the wives of wealthy merchants who founded and played a leading role in the organizations. They tried to actively implement the traditional emotional or religious beliefs that emphasized the social responsibility of individuals or the rich as universal values in Russian society. One of the factors that inspired “female charity” in the late 19th century was the legal basis for women to legally organize and operate women’s charities through new legislative reforms. Despite the various activities of women’s charities, with the exception of some organizations sponsored by the imperial family, most organizations have suffered from a lack of funds, systematic organization and operation. There was also a limit that their activities were not extended to rural areas where the majority of Russian women lived. Nevertheless, the activities of women’s charities in the late 19th and early 20th centuries are valuable as a precedent of how social and moral obligations of the social elite were embodied in society.

THE PROBLEM OF LEISURE TIME IN LATE 19TH AND EARLY 20TH-CENTURY LITHUANIA: THE WORKING CLASS CHALLENGE TO THE MIDDLE CLASS In the late 19th century, leisure time became an important and publicly discussed topic in modernising Lithuanian society. This article examines how the topic of leisure time was discussed from a wide range of political positions, and how the factor of leisure time became increasingly important when considering the future scenarios of society. At the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, the topic of leisure time, its meaningful activities, and appropriate leisure time-related issues were intertwined with discussions about the development of civilisation, new cultural standards, and challenges to the most important principles of social cohesion. The reason for the debate at that time was inseparable from the main features of modernisation: rapid economic growth, industrialisation and urbanisation, changes in the social structure, apparent features of individualisation, secularism, and the burgeoning of consumer culture. In this article, the author focuses on singling out the most important features of modernising leisure time, when work and leisure become binary categories. From this perspective, the conflict between two important social groups, namely the working class and the bourgeoisie, is highlighted. The article demonstrates how these two groups sought to establish themselves ideologically, not only by showing their right to leisure time, but also by shaping what that leisure time should be. The first group consisted of the defenders of workers’ rights (and in rare cases, workers themselves) presenting leisure time as a precondition for a better life. This assessment was seen as an instrument incorporating workers’ daily life into the rest of modern society. However, with leisure time becoming a universal human value and norm, many leisure practices that workers in the late 19th and early 20th century opted for were problematic for members of another prominent group, the bourgeoisie. In this article, the bourgeoisie, or the middle class, is defined by means of Peter Stearn’s observation that it is useful to include cultural experience, not ‘just change in political or economic structure’. Thus, emphasising the cultural rather than the economic aspect of this social group, it can be stated that, for members of the middle class, ideas of ‘decent leisure’ and ‘appropriate use of time’ were based on the values and skills of self-discipline, order and efficient organisation. In this case, leisure time was recognised as a means of the partial reform of society and national consolidation. Consequently, the issue of leisure time in late 19th-century Lithuania became an intersection where two major social groups, opinions and practices met. On one hand, the question of leisure time is indistinguishable from a utopian, sometimes paternalistic, harmonious vision of the working class and their leisure; other ways, cultural and political attitudes about the dangers of the working class (and, of course, it is most dangerous after finishing work), arose from seeing how many late 19th-century workers chose meaningless, harmful and violent leisure activities. In both cases, the culture of leisure time in late 19th and early 20th-century Lithuania could be seen not as a routine or a temporary escape from social norms, but rather as a process for modern culture to appear in everyday life, contributing to the emergence of new social and cultural identities.

To this day, the opinion that is widespread in the scientific literature about the accessibility of secondary and higher women’s education in the imperial era mainly for daughters of wealthy people, has led to the expediency of studying the problem. The autobiography of the average Kyivan burgher woman Dashko from a low-income family of traders has become the empirical material of the study. The chronological framework of the study, represented in the autobiography, includes the late imperial era: late 19th century — year 1913. The methodological basis of the study is the microhistory, which focuses on the development of history “from below” and “from within”, the study of living conditions, educational needs, motivations and forms of behaviour of the individual. As a result of the study it has been proven that at the late 19th and early 20th century the urban attractiveness of Kyiv prompted the city authorities to ensure the accessibility of school education for children of city residents. The autobiography of the average Kyivan woman Dashko demonstrates a specific educational trajectory of the daughter of Orthodox low-income burghers. The circumstances of life of the Kyivan woman show a clear connection between the wealth of the burgher family and plans for the future of the children. The low income of the family of traders resulted in the utilitarianism of the initial training of the daughter, as well as breaks in education, studying in various types of lower educational institutions in Kyiv. An innate curiosity, a formed desire for further development and going beyond the everyday life of the burgher family, combined with persistent training, ensured the girl’s admission to the Kyiv-Podilsky Women Gymnasium. Obtaining a secondary education became a significant achievement in the educational trajectory of the daughter of low-income Kyivan residents. Having tried the effectiveness of education as a channel of social mobility, the graduate of the gymnasium dreams of further education at the medical department of the Kyiv Higher Courses for Women.

This study investigate the transition about Japanese national costume kimono. The prototype of the present kimono is a kosode. The origin of kosode dates back to the mid-Heian period, when this type of kimono served as the everyday wear of commoners and an undergarment for court nobles, both men and women. In the Muromachi period, particularly after the Onin war, the kosode began to be by people of all classes. In the Muromachi period, kosode consisted mainly of woven textiles. In the Momoyama period, kosode became very elaborate, employing such various techniques as tie-dyeing, embroidery, metallic leaf(surihaku) and free-hand painting. These were further combined resulting in such techniques as tsujigahana dyeing and nuihaku, which are now considered to epitomize Momoyama-period textile design. A category of kosode of the early Edo period, known as Keicho kosode, is fashioned mainly from black, white, or red figured satin(rinzu), or from figured satin segmented in these three colors. Books of kosode designs began to be published in the Kambun era, when the merchant class was becoming economically powerful, kosode began to reflect its taste. During its final stage of development in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, yuzen dyeing achieved wide acceptance. From the late 18th century toward the early 19th century, kosode worn by the merchant class underwent drastic changes, while those worn by the samurai class changed little. In the after the late 18th century, clear differences in design and decorative methods appeared between the kosode worn by rich merchants and those worn by middle and lower class merchants.

This study clarifies the causes of the repetitive occurrences of such phenomena as rinderpest, epidemic, famine, and tiger disasters recorded in the Joseon Dynasty Chronicle and the Seungjeongwon Journals in the period of great catastrophe, the late 17th century in which the great Gyeongsin famine (1670~1671) and the great Eulbyeong famine (1695~1696) occurred, from the perspective that they were biological exchanges caused by the new arrival of rinderpest in the early 17th century. It is an objection to the achievements by existing studies which suggest that the great catastrophes occurring in the late 17th century are evidence of phenomena in a little ice age. First of all, rinderpest has had influence on East Asia as it had been spread from certain areas in Machuria in May 1636 through Joseon, where it raged throughout the nation, and then to the west part of Japan. The new arrival of rinderpest was indigenized in Joseon, where it was localized and spread periodically while it was adjusted to changes in the population of cattle with immunity in accordance with their life spans and reproduction rates. As the new rinderpest, which showed high pathogenicity in the early 17th century, was indigenized with its high mortality and continued until the late 17th century, it broke out periodically in general. Contrastively, epidemics like smallpox and measles that were indigenized as routine ones had occurred constantly from far past times. As a result, the rinderpest, which tried a new indigenization, and the human epidemics, which had been already indigenized long ago, were unexpectedly overlapped in their breakout, and hence great changes were noticed in the aspects of the human casualty due to epidemics. The outbreak of rinderpest resulted in famine due to lack of farming cattle, and the famine caused epidemics among people. The casualty of the human population due to the epidemics in turn led to negligence of farming cattle, which constituted factors that triggered rage and epidemics of rinderpest. The more the number of sources of infection and hosts with low immunity increased, the more lost human resources and farming cattle were lost, which led to a great famine. The periodic outbreak of the rinderpester along with the routine prevalence of various epidemics in the 17thcentury also had influenced on domestic and wild animals. Due to these phenomenon, full-fledged famines occurred that were incomparable with earlier ones. The number of domestic animals that were neglected by people who, faced with famines, were not able to take care of them was increased, and this might have brought about the rage of epidemics like rinderpest in domestic animals like cattle. The great Gyeongsin and Eulbyeong famines due to reoccurrence of the rinderpest in the late 17th century linked rinderpester, epidemics and great famines so that they interacted with each other. Furthermore, the recurring cycle of epidemics-famines-rinderpest-great famines constituted a great cycle with synergy, which resulted in eco-economic-historical great catastrophes accompanied by large scale casualties. Therefore, the Gyeongsin and Eulbyeong famines occurring in the late 17th century can be treated as events caused by the repetition of various periodic disastrous factors generated in 1670~1671 and in 1695~1696 respectively, and particularly as phenomena caused by biological exchanges based on rinderpester., rather than as little ice age phenomena due to relatively long term temperature lowering.

Kola is a bitter, caffeine-rich nut indigenous to the West African forest zones. Across western Africa, kola’s use is wide-ranging: it serves as a stimulant, a dye, and a critical item in healing, childbirth, weddings, religious rituals, and in mediating disputes. Kola is also integral to western African trade. From at least the 11th century, kola was a primary commodity in long-distance commerce between the Sierra Leone–Guinea forests to the savannah. West Africans traded kola along the Upper Guinea Coast before the arrival of the Portuguese in the 15th century, who subsequently engaged in the coastal kola trade. In the 19th century liberated African women in Sierra Leone formed an important trading diaspora, conveying the nut overland to the savannah, within West Africa, and to Europe. Asante became the world’s leading producer of kola in the late 19th and early 20th century, exporting the nut to the savannah and later to Lagos, Brazil, and Europe. In southern Nigeria, kola featured in local commerce and was conveyed to Brazil, Europe, and the United States. In Lagos, liberated Yoruba returnees from Sierra Leone were instrumental in the kola trade between Sierra Leone and the Gold Coast to Lagos, and to Brazil. Technological advancements stimulated kola trade within West Africa, and by 1930s, southern Nigerian-produced kola surpassed other areas of West Africa. Afro-Brazilian returnees were critical in the expansion of this production. Trade was also significant from Nupe to the north. Kola also made its way across the Atlantic. By at least the 17th century, kola was conveyed from West Africa to the Circum-Caribbean on slave ships. It was employed by Europeans to induce backbreaking labor from enslaved peoples; enslaved peoples themselves used the nut medicinally to treat a range of ailments. From the late 19th century, kola was imported to the British Caribbean as an alternative economic crop following the decline of sugar. Botanical gardens in the British Caribbean cultivated the nut and distributed it locally as well as regionally. Kola produced in the Caribbean and West Africa was exported to Europe and North America, where the nut was first embraced as a medicinal tonic, notably in Coca-Cola. From the 19th century, a long-distance trade was established between West Africa and Brazil, supporting the use of kola by Afro-Brazilians. The kola nut is sacred to several African-derived religions in the Americas, including the Brazilian Candomblé, Cuban Santería, and Grenadian and Trinidadian Orisa worship.

186Philosophy and Literature The Languages ofPsyche: Mind and Body in Enlightenment Thought. Clark Library Lectures 1985-1986, edited by G. S. Rousseau; 494 pp. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990, $55.00 cloth, $16.95 paper. Michel Foucault'sMadnessand Civilization and Birthofme Clinic—first published in 1961 and 1963, respectively—encouraged a critical rethinking ofthe Western psychiatric and medical traditions emerging from the European Enlightenment as institutions fundamental to the modern world. The Languages ofPsycL·, consisting of papers developed in a lecture series on the mind/body problem in the Enlightenment—a series to which Foucault had agreed to contribute a theoretical framework before his untimely death—provides as good an introduction as any to the most recent work on the beginnings of modern medicine. The essays, emerging from the vantage points of a variety ofdisciplines such as philosophy, literature, history, and medical history, are arranged in roughly chronological order and trace the developments found in the late 17th, 18th, and early 19th centuries. The first important development was the increasing power of physicians, and decreasing significance of philosophers and religious figures, as arbiters of the mind/body problem. The second important development took place within medicine itself: the move on the part ofthe physicians from the mechanistic, body-oriented, and scientifically quantifiable approach of the early Enlightenment, characterized by Boerhaave and Hoffmann, for instance, to a psychological, mind-oriented, and much more humanistic approach in the late 18th century (exemplified by Battie, Pinel, and Reil), which in the early 19th century lost ground to positivism. Although these broad themes are not particularly new, the essays provide much fresh evidence for their validity. Several ofthe papers deserve special commendations. Flynn makes a thoughtprovoking attempt to find similar patterns of thinking and rhetoric in 18thcentury physicians and such novelists as Richardson, Sterne, and Smollett. In a way reminiscent of Thomas Mann's Naphta, Schaffer intelligendy undercuts the polarities which grounded the 18th-century self-understanding, linking, for instance, the rational Enlightenment with the occult via such favorite secret societies as the Illuminati. Morris shows how Sade relied on medicine for much of his anatomical and biological thinking, while he rejected its value system, specifically its attempts to subdue pain. In the volume's final essay, Popkin studies the Enlightenment medical and scientific justifications for racism directed at Africans and Jews, justifications which at times relied on cultural factors related to conceptions ofmind and at times relied on physical differences in the body. If the collection of essays has any problems, it is the presence of Foucault's ghost. The papers, which frequendy cite Foucault and are dedicated, as he was, Reviews187 to examining institutional discourses which have too often fallen between the cracks of current academic disciplinary structures, are certainly of interest as New Historical documents. As such, they are in danger of descending into a Foucauldian epigonism which is nothing more than pedantry without a point. At times exaggerated claims are made for the importance of medical figures who have been ignored (perhaps rightly) for the last two centuries; at other times paragraphs full of arcane knowledge seem inserted only to prove the erudition and archival industriousness of the authors. Overall, however, these essays escape the danger ofbecoming New Historical parodies and contribute valuably to the field. The anthology's admirable bibliography and thorough index make it all the more helpful. TL· Languages of PsycL· should prove useful both to scholars who need an overview of the history of medicine and an introduction to the most recent work in the field and to specialists looking to polish their own work with the results ofthe latest research. Whitman CollegeRobert Tobin The Shades ofAeneas: The Imitation ofVergilandtheHistory of Paganism in Boccaccio's Filostrato, Filocolo, and Teseida , by James H. McGregor; ix & 133 pp. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1991, $30.00. James McGregor's Shades ofAeneas is a detailed study of three lesser-known works of Boccaccio: Filostrato, Filocolo, and Teseida. Its aim is to clarify the range of Vergilian and Statian allusions within these works and, in the process, to develop a coherent scheme for interpreting them. According to McGregor, all three ofthese early romances are highly critical ofthe pagan world they...