Abstract
Masculinity is frequently talked about in contemporary Western media as being in crisis, needing reform or even being ‘toxic’. However, no research to date has assessed the impact that this pervasive narrative might be having on people, particularly men themselves. This cross-sectional online pilot survey asked 203 men and 52 women (mean + SD age 46 + 13) their opinions about the terms toxic masculinity, traditional masculinity, and positive masculinity, and how they would feel if their gender was seen as the cause of their relationship or job problems. Most participants thought the term toxic masculinity insulting, probably harmful to boys, and unlikely to help men’s behaviour. Having feminist views, especially being anti-patriarchy, were correlated with more tolerance of the term toxic masculinity. Most participants said they would be unhappy if their masculinity or femininity were blamed for their work or relationship problems. Further analysis using multiple linear regression found that men’s self-esteem was significantly predicted by older age, more education, and a greater acceptance of traditional masculinity. Men’s mental positivity – which is known to be negatively correlated with suicidality – was significantly predicted by older age, a greater acceptance of traditional masculinity, and more education. Implications for the mental health of men and boys are discussed in relation to the narrative around masculinity in the media, social sciences, and in clinical psychology.
Highlights
Until around the 1980s, masculinity was typically described using adjectives such as ‘active’, ‘dominant’, ‘self-contained’ (e.g., Cicone & Ruble, 1978) and ‘aggressive’ (Spence et al, 1975)
In ‘critical psychology’ – inspired by Marxist ideas – men are sometimes portrayed as a dominant class who oppress women as a class, and ‘male privilege’ and ‘patriarchy’ are constructed as problems in relation to masculinity (Arfken, 2017; Nicolson, 2010)
Toxic masculinity is described as ‘the constellation of socially regressive male traits that serve to foster domination, the devaluation of women, homophobia, and wanton violence’ (Kupers 2005, p.710), and has become synonymous with violence and sexual assault by men
Summary
Until around the 1980s, masculinity was typically described using adjectives such as ‘active’, ‘dominant’, ‘self-contained’ (e.g., Cicone & Ruble, 1978) and ‘aggressive’ (Spence et al, 1975). The Word of the Year is chosen by the Oxford University Press to reflect the preoccupations of society that are most likely to have lasting cultural significance, and the widespread use of the term ‘toxic masculinity’ probably reflects the culmination of several decades of negativity about men and masculinity. This raises the possibility that the term shapes how men are perceived, foregrounding toxicity over and above the law-abiding and positive behaviours of most men (Barry, 2017). The aim of the present study was to pilot questions about how people feel about various conceptions of masculinity, and whether such views are related to self-esteem
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