Rare species of medicinal plants of the Ritsa Relict National Park (Republic of Abkhazia)

The article presents the results of ecological and biological analysis of species composition of five rare and endangered endemic plant species of southeastern Kazakhstan listed in the Red Book of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The importance of this research topic is determined by the need for a comprehensive and in-depth understanding of the ecological and biological characteristics of rare plant species growing in the southeast of Kazakhstan. The studies were conducted in the southeast of Kazakhstan (Zailiysky Alatau, Ketpen), where the objects of the study were representatives of rare and endangered endemic plant species: Astragalus rubtzovii Boriss, Taraxacum kok-saghyz L.E. Rodin., Schmalhausenia nidulans (Regel) Petr. Betula Jarmolenkoana Golosk., Rheum wittrockii Lundstr., from natural populations. The study of the state of the coenopopulation of rare and endemic plant species was carried out by route and semi-stationary methods. The novelty of the work is that for the first time the most complete ecological and biological characteristics of rare and endangered endemic plant species of the southeast of Kazakhstan are given, their biological features and habitat characteristics are studied. In the study area, 5 identified rare and endangered endemic plant species are represented by 2 types of life forms, where the predominant group among rare and endemic species is hemiocryptophytes (perennial plants) and one species is represented by a phanerophyte - a woody plant (Betula jarmolenkoana).

The endemic medicinal plants of Northern Balochistan, Pakistan and their uses in traditional medicine

This study was carried out in the carbonate (marble) part of North Pirin Mts. Its upper parts are declared protected area of National Park category according to the Bulgarian Protected Areas Act. It is also a NATURA 2000 protected zone under the Habitats Directive, and a natural UNESCO World Heritage Site. The main reason for the conservation of this territory is the exceptional concentration of rare, relict and endemic plant species, its specific flora, vegetation and fauna. Subject of the study are the plant communities and habitats, with participation of 8 local endemic plant taxa, such as Cyanus achtarovii, Oxytropis kozhuharovii, O. urumovii, Odontarrhena orbelica, Alyssum pirinicum, Veronica kellereri, Brassica nivalis subsp. jordanoffii and Arabis ferdinandi-coburgii. The plant communities were studied according to the classical Braun-Blanquet’s approach by sampling the phytocoenoses, where the local endemics participate. The major syntaxa to which these communities belong, were determined. The plant communities with the participation of local endemics were also referred to lower units according to EUNIS habitats classification. The study found that most of the studied endemic species occur in various vegetation types and exhibit relatively wide ecological flexibility, despite inhabiting restricted area. The main reason for this is the comparative uniformity of the high mountain marble relief. This study also highlights the high conservation value of the vegetation cover and habitat diversity of the carbonate alpine and subalpine vegetation belts of Northern Pirin Mts., as a habitat for numerous endemic and relict plant species.

Endemic island plant species under threat due to anthropogenic activities may be more susceptible to decline than their indigenous counterparts. Our study aimed to determine whether endemic and indigenous plant cover in Hawaiian forests have been differentially affected by resource availability, disturbance, and invasion over time. We resurveyed 25 plots (400 m 2 each) across gradients of elevation, precipitation, slope, and understory light availability in forested conservation areas on the island of O ahu, Hawai i, USA. We assessed how these abiotic factors relate to absolute cover (previous, current, and change over time) of endemic and indigenous Hawaiian plants, as well as that of non-native species. Endemic species had a net loss of cover (-45%) since previous surveys 27 to 45 years earlier, while indigenous species had a net gain (+ 29%), as did non-natives (~ 1%). Endemic species cover was associated with higher elevations in both prior surveys and in 2018, and with steeper plot slopes in prior surveys. However, change in endemic cover over time was negatively correlated with slope, likely due to landslide disturbance or the proliferation of shade-tolerant invaders in low-light conditions where no disturbance was evident. Change in endemic species cover over time was not clearly related to resource availability (light and precipitation). Given the differences in responses of endemic and indigenous species to abiotic conditions, and that the endemic species in this study were more susceptible to decline than indigenous species, the results of this study indicate that generalizations about natives as a single group can be misleading. endemic plant species' decline (e.g., Adsersen, 1989; Jäger et al., 2009) , and the results of this study may help inform conservation efforts and strategies in these locations.

In the central part of Macedonia, in the triangle between Veles, Štip and Negotino, there is a vast area that is different from the rest of the country. The entire area slightly resembles an undulating sea, as its surface is interrupted by numerous ditches, which makes the region almost impassable. Bedrock is composed of Paleogenic, and more rarely Neogenic sediments, among them there are sandstones, marl sandstones, clays, sandy clays, carbonates, marls and others. All Paleogenic sediments are of marine origin and therefore extremely salt-rich. In the region the erosion is extremely severe; water and frost cause sediment layers to decay into small particles, which are later carried away by water. The work deals with a survey of flora and vegetation. After the analysis the most important species and vegetation types/habitats have been established. According to this the most important localities have been defined. The floristic investigations deal with endemic, halophytic, steppe and other rare plant species. There are eight endemic plant species: Hedysarum macedonicum, Astragalus cernjavskii, Tulipa mariannae, Onobrychis megalophylla, Ferulago macedonica, Heptaptera macedonica, Salvia jurisicii and Potentilla tridentula. There appear also some significant steppe (Astragalus parnassi, Morina persica and Convolvulus holosericeus) and halophytic (Artemisia maritima, Artemisia annua, Krascheninnikovia ceratoides and Camphorosma monspeliaca) species, as well as numerous other, rare plant species. The study of vegetation results in a systematic overlook over the vegetation types of the region: weed (Stellarietea mediae) and ruderal (Artemisietea) communities; communities of salted sites (Puccinellio-Salicornietea), dry grasslands and steppe communities (Festuco-Brometea), meadows (Molinio-Arrhenatheretea), wet communities (Phragmiti-Magnocaricetea), riverine forests (Salicetea purpureae, Querco-Fagetea) and thermophilous scrublands and forests (Quercetea pubescentis). In the frame of nomenclatural harmonization, there are descriptions of new syntaxa and nomenclatural corrections, as Eryngio campestris-Paliurion spinae-christi, Jasmini fruticantis-Paliuretum spinae-christi, Pistacio terebinthi-Juniperetum oxycedri, Carpino orientalis-Quercetum frainetto, Salvio verbenacae-Avenetum barbatae, Onopodo-Marrubietum peregrini and Peganetum harmalae. The basis of the evaluation in the field of nature protection was Annex I of the Habitat Directive. There appear well developed priority habitats of semi-natural dry grasslands and steppe communities of the class Festuco-Brometea, arborescent matorral with Juniperus oxycedrus and Quercus frainetto woods; there exist also priority habitat: continental saltlands. Some other important habitats appear on smaller surfaces. It was established that the most important localities in terms of floristics and vegetation are: Orlovo Brdo, Solena Reka, Solen Dol, area between Negotino and the village of Krivolak, the mountain pasture Serta above the village of Pepelište and the mountain pasture Bogoslovec near Sveti Nikola. Special protection is proposed for these localities. The publication is designed for experts in fields of botany and vegetation ecology, as well as for expert public in various applied sciences (e.g. nature protection) and also for a wider public interested in plant world.

Preservation of Kazakhstan biodiversity, characterised by a variety of bioresources, is among the key national interests of the state. Medicinal plants making up a quater of all vascular plants in Kazakhstan, are an irreplaceable natural resource capable of providing raw materials for the domestic pharmaceutical and food industries. Literature screening of natural flora conducted in 2012–2014 indicates a low degree (10 %) of study of wild medicinal plant resources on the territory of the Republic. Of 1406 Kazakhstan medicinal plants, only 230 species are used in official medicine, the rest are used in folk or experimental medicine. For most of the demanded species, modern resource studies with assessment of the ecological state of natural populations are required. Due to predatory harvesting of economically important species of medicinal plants, their export from the country and increasing exploitation pressure, 65 species are included in the Red Book of the Republic of Kazakhstan as rare, endemic or endangered. There is a lack of up-to-date data on medicinal plants of Kazakhstan with an assessment of species and phytocenotic diversity, phytochemical and resource potential. To develop a strategy for sustainable use and conservation of plant resources of the country, primarily ecosystems of economically valuable, intensively exploited, as well as endemic, rare and endangered species of medicinal plants, it is necessary to identify key areas of medicinal plants, characterised by saturation and species richnes, and provide a modern assessment of their potential for pharmaceutical needs. Modern assessment of medicinal plants of Kazakhstan will provide a scientific basis for inventory and state monitoring of plant world, strategy for conservation and optimisation of in situ and ex situ use of plants; optimal nature management that does not contradict the principles of sustainable development, long-term conservation of biodiversity and environmental sustainability.

Serpentine soils are edaphically stressful environments that host many endemic plant species. In particular, serpentine soils are high in several heavy metals (e.g. nickel, cobalt and chromium) and these high heavy metal concentrations are thought, in part, to lead to varying levels of plant adaptation and soil affinities (i.e. endemic vs. non-endemic plant species). It is unclear, however, whether serpentine endemics vs. non-endemics differ with respect to heavy metal uptake into either vegetative or reproductive organs. Here, we use nickel as a model to determine whether plant heavy metal uptake varies with the level of endemism in several non-hyperaccumulating species. Under controlled greenhouse conditions, we grew seven plant species from the Brassicaceae family that vary in their degrees of affinity to serpentine soil from low (indifferent) to medium (indicator) and high (endemic) in soil that was nickel supplemented or not. We quantified nickel concentrations in leaves, pistils, anthers, pollen and nectar. While nickel concentrations did not vary across organs or affinities when grown in control soils, under conditions of nickel supplementation endemic species had the lowest tissue concentrations of nickel, particularly when considering leaves and pistils, compared with indifferent/indicator species. Species indifferent to serpentines incorporated higher concentrations of nickel into reproductive organs relative to leaves, but this was not the case for indicator species and endemics where nickel concentration was similar in these organs. Our findings suggest that endemic species possess the ability to limit nickel uptake into above-ground tissues, particularly in reproductive organs where it may interfere with survival and reproduction. Indifferent species accumulated significantly more nickel into reproductive organs compared with leaves, which may limit their reproductive potential relative to endemic species when growing on serpentine soils. Additional work determining the fitness consequences of these differences will further our understanding of edaphic endemism.

Reproductive biology of Actaea kashmiriana, an endemic medicinal plant species from the Himalaya: Implications for conservation and sustainable utilisation

Population genetic theory and methodology were applied to the study of endemic plant species. Levels of genetic variability were compared between endemic species and their more widespread relatives. Six of seven narrowly distributed taxa of Saxifragaceae had significantly reduced genetic diversity relative to species of Saxifragaceae with broader distributions. Two endemic species of the fern Polystichum maintained significantly lower levels of genetic variation than did their more widespread congeners. The implications of these data and those reported for other endemic plant species for designing management strategies are also discussed.

ContextThe popular pharmacopoeia of Trinidad and Tobago is the result of a Creole pan-Caribbean culture, closely linked to history, and the result of a South American Indian, African, European and Asian heritage (Lans, 1996; Moodie-Kublalsingh, 1994; Littlewood, 1988; Simpson, 1962; Niehoff, 1959). Ethnoveterinary medicine in this thesis is the local, mainly plant-based medicines used for animals. Low cost inputs are necessary and important to the future of livestock production in Trinidad and Tobago. Investments in commercial drugs are not sound in situations where farmers report that high numbers of animals are lost or stolen (Table 1).Table 1. Summary of stolen, lost or dead animals in the 4 months prior to the November-December 1988, Tobago livestock census. SheepGoatsCowsNo. animals lost or stolen1183721No. farmers reporting lost / stolen animals37193No. dead animals62514948No. farmers reporting deaths1678431Source: Osuji et al. , 1988.ObjectiveResearch in ethnoveterinary knowledge was conducted as one possible solution to the existing constraints in animal health care in Trinidad and Tobago. The origins of the folk knowledge in Trinidad and Tobago were traced since socio-cultural rather than scientific logic provides the basis for some of the folk remedies. Knowledge of these cultural practices is necessary in the verification process, so that research effort is not wasted in chemical analysis of plants that are used for culturally specific reasons.MethodsThe methods used were inter-disciplinary and paid equal attention and respect to local and western-scientific perspectives (McCorkle et al. , 1996). The first phase of the research involved data collection carried out for five months in 1995. This data collection can be divided into four parts: the school essay method; the group and individual interviews; the focus group workshops and the secondary literature review. The school essay method used in the first step of the data collection is a Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) tool. The group interviews and the workshops used in the second and third steps of the data collection fall under the category of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) (Catley and Mohammed, 1996).In the second phase of the research, the researcher worked through previously known individuals and from previously existing social networks in building a snowball sample (Nalven, 1987). Known people helped in the creation of some networks by suggesting people who could be interviewed. Snowball sampling led to community members who were well recognised as knowing more than the average person knows. A purposive sample of ethnoveterinary key respondents was obtained, which minimised negative outcomes. This networking approach was necessary because there was no sampling frame of persons involved in traditional healing. From 1997 - 1999, the researcher also conducted research with one group of seven hunters based in south Trinidad. This research included participant observation which involved taking part in five hunts over the three years (going into the forest, observing the chase and capture, sharing a meal and sharing of take home game). Participant observation and in-depth interviewing of key respondents are traditional anthropological approaches (Etkin, 1993).Western science has often been used as the standard by which other knowledges should be evaluated (Watson-Verran and Turnbull, 1995). Western science has become the main means of establishing whether a technology works and how. The non-experimental validation of the ethnoveterinary medicines was undertaken in recognition of that fact.The purpose of this non-empirical validation is to provide a guide to laboratory researchers as to which of these plants merit further investigation. The first step of the methodology involved a review of the published historical, social science and ethnomedicinal literature to gain an understanding of Caribbean, Asian, African and Latin American concepts of health and illness. This step served to separate the plants used for cultural reasons from those with specific medicinal properties. The second step involved searching the published literature for information on the plants' known chemical constituents and pharmacological effects. The third step built on the first two and was an evaluation of whether there is a plausible biological mechanism by which the plant chemicals and known or possible physiological effects could achieve the results described by the respondents. Conclusions are based on these evaluations.ResultsThe dominant form of transmission seemed to be from the 'older heads' to the young. The most commonly mentioned 'older heads' were mothers, grannies and old aunts. The results were divided into nine case studies, pigs, commercial poultry and gamecocks, ruminants and reproductive health, pet dogs and hunting dogs, horses and [human] ethnomedicine. Three of the tables and one of the matrices are reproduced in this abstract.Eight plants are used for health problems and husbandry in pig farming. Erythrina pallida, E. micropteryx, Cecropia peltata, Bambusa vulgaris, Carica papaya, Citrus aurantium, Centropogon cornutus and Coffee arabica / robusta.The ethnoveterinary usage of locally available plants for commercial poultry in Trinidad are summarised in Table 10. Poultry keepers use seventeen medicinal plants for medicinal purposes.Table 10. Medicinal plants used by poultry farmers and poultry keepersScientific nameFamilyCommon namePlant part usedUseAllium sativumLiliaceaeGarlicBulbReduced appetiteKalanchoe pinnataCrassulaceaeWonder of the worldLeavesReduced appetiteMomordica charantiaCucurbitaceaeCaraailiVineReduced appetiteNeurolaena lobataAsteraceaeZ'herbe á piqueLeavesReduced appetiteChrysobalanus icacoChrysobalanaceaeIpecak PoxCitrus aurantifoliaRutaceaeLimeJuice, pulpYawsCitrus speciesRutaceaeCitrus speciesJuice, peelRespiratory conditions, heat stressCoffee arabica / robustaRutaceaeCoffeeGroundsRespiratory conditionsEryngium foetidumApiaceaeChadron bénéeLeavesRespiratory conditionsMomordica charantiaCucurbitaceaeCaraailiVineRespiratoryPimenta racemosa var. racemosaMyrtaceaeWest Indian BayLeavesRespiratoryRicinus communisEuphorbiaceaeCarapateLeavesRespiratoryAloe veraLiliaceaeAloeGelEnhance liveabilityKalanchoe pinnataCrassulaceaeWonder of the worldLeavesEnhance liveabilityOcimum sanctumLamiaceaeTulsiLeavesEnhance liveabilityAzadirachta indicaMeliaceaeNeemLeavesEctoparasitesCedrela odorataMeliaceaeCedarLeavesEctoparasitesCordia curassavicaBoraginaceaeBlack sageLeavesEctoparasitesMomordica charantiaCucurbitaceaeCaraailiVineEctoparasitesPetiveria alliaceaPhytolaccaceaeKojo rootLeavesEctoparasitesRenealmia alpiniaZingiberaceaeMardi grasLeavesEctoparasitesEryngium foetidumApiaceaeChadron bénéeLeavesMeat qualityNine plants are used for medicinal purposes by owner/trainers for game cocks in Trinidad. One of these plants (gru gru boeuf) was tentatively identified from the literature but eyebright has not yet been identified. The plants used were Citrus aurantium , Acrocomia ierensis (gru gru boeuf), Chenopodium ambrosioides , Gossypium sp. Aloe vera , Plantago major , Eyebright and Citrus limonia .The ethnoveterinary usages of locally available plants for ruminants in Trinidad and Tobago are summarised in Table 12. Twenty-one plants are used. Medicinal plant dosages for ruminants tended to be case and context specific. Phases of the moon were taken into consideration in farmers' decision making.Table 12. Medicinal plants used for ruminantsScientific nameFamilyCommon namePlant part usedUseBambusa vulgarisPoaceaeBambooLeafy branchesRetained placentaCurcuma longaZingiberaceaeTurmericRhizomeR/ placentaOryza sativaPoaceaeRice paddyGrainR/ placentaSenna occidentalisCaesalpiniaceaeWild coffeeLeaves, rootsR/placentaSpondias mombinAnacardiaceaeHogplumLeafy branchesRetained placentaAchryanthes indicaAmaranthaceaeMan better manLeaves, rootsOestrus inductionAloe veraLiliaceaeAloesLeavesO/ inductionMimosa pudicaFabaceaeTi marieRootsO/ inductionPetiveria alliaceaPhytolaccaceaeGullyrootRootsO/ inductionRuellia tuberosaAcanthaceaeMinny rootRootsO/ inductionSenna occidentalisCaesalpiniaceaeWild coffeeLeaves, rootsOestrus inductionLaportea aestuansUrticaceaeStinging nettleLeavesUrinary problemsAnacardium occidentaleAnacardiaceaeCashewBarkDiarrhoeaPsidium guajavaMyrtaceaeGuavaBudsDiarrhoeaAloe veraLiliaceaeAloesLeavesPoulticeAsclepias curassavicaAsclepiadaceaeRed headFlowerPoulticeCurcuma longaZingiberaceaeTurmericRhizomePoulticeKalanchoe pinnataCrassulaceaeWonder of the worldLeafPoulticeMusa speciesMusaceaeBananaStemPoulticeNopalea cochenilliferaCactaceaeRachetteJointPoulticeTheobroma cacaoSterculiaceaeCocoaPodsPoulticeAloe veraLiliaceaeAloesLeafWoundsCurcuma longaZingiberaceaeTurmericRhizomeWoundsAzadirachta indicaMeliaceaeNeemLeavesAnthelminticPetiveria alliaceaPhytolaccaceaeGullyrootRootsAnthelminticRuellia tuberosaAcanthaceaeMinny rootRootsAnthelminticStachytarpheta jamaicensisVerbenaceaeVervineLeavesAnthelmintic, Milk productionCordia curassavicaBoraginaceaeBlack sageLeavesEctoparasitesA methodology for the non-experimental validation of herbal medicines was used to evaluate nine (9) plants used for reproductive health in both ethnomedicine and ethnoveterinary medicine. These nine plants were Spondias mombin , Senna occidentalis , Petiveria alliacea , Ruellia tuberosa , Curcuma longa , Abelmochus esculentus , Bambusa vulgaris , Oryza sativa and Stachytarpheta jamaicensis . The purpose of the non-experimental validation was to provide a guide to laboratory researchers as to which of these plants merit further investigation (Browner et al ., 1988; Heinrich et al ., 1992). The link between medicinal plants used for both human and animal health was most clearly seen in the plants that are used for retained placenta, or to remove what the respondents called the "clot blood" associated with birth (the blood clots and haematomas). This connection is demonstrated.The plants, three of which are used for retained placenta, can be evaluated according to the terms "irritating" and "warming". Chemical constituents that correspond to the term "warming" are perhaps those that cause in vivo or in vitro uterine contractions. Uterine stimulants are ergometrine, oxytocin, serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine), acetylcholine and prostaglandins (PGE 2 and PGF 2α ) (Uguru et al. , 1998). Irritating chemical constituents according to Duke (2000) are 1,8-cineole, alpha-pinene, borneol, eugenol, oleic acid and vanillin. Chemicals with spasmogenic activity are 1,8-cineole, serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine), alpha-pinene and beta-pinene. The non-experimental validation of these nine plants suggested that these plants are used for rational reasons (in Western scientific terms) and are used similarly elsewhere. The role that culture and religion play in farmer decision making may explain the similarity between the ethnoveterinary practices found in Trinidad and Tobago and ethnomedicines used by women in the Caribbean, India, Africa and South America (Morton, 1981; IIRR, 1994).Twenty medicinal plants used for dogs in Trinidad and Tobago are presented in Table 14.Table 14. Medicinal plants used for pet dogsScientific nameFamilyCommon namePlant part usedUseAnacardium occidentaleAnacardiaceaeCashewBarkDiarrhoeaPsidium guajavaMyrtaceaeGuavaBuds, leavesDiarrhoeaS. jamaicensisVerbenaceaeVervineLeavesMilk let downBambusa vulgarisPoaceaeBambooLeavesGroomingCordia curassavicaBoraginaceaeBlack sageLeavesGroomingScoparia dulcisScrophulariaceaeSweet broomPlant topsGroomingBixa orellanaBixaceaeRoukouInside podsMangeCrescentia cujeteBignoniaceaeCalabashPulpMangeEclipta prostrataAsteraceaeCongo lalaPlant topsMange, Fungal skin infectionsMusa speciesMusaceaeMoko, BananaStemMangeManilkara zapotaSapotaceaeSapodillaSeedsMyiasisCajanus cajanFabaceaePigeon peaLeavesEctoparasiteCordia curassavicaBoraginaceaeBlack sageLeavesEctoparasiteMammea americanaGuttiferaeMammee appleSeedsEctoparasiteNicotiana tabacumSolanaceaeTobaccoLeavesEctoparasitePouteria sapotaSapotaceaeMamey sapoteSeedsEctoparasiteAreca catechuArecaceaeBetel nutFruit/nutAnthelminticA. indicaMeliaceaeNeemLeavesAnthelminticCajanus cajanFabaceaePigeon peaLeavesAnthelminticCarica papayaCaricaceaePapayaSeedsAnthelminticCassia alataCaesalpiniaceaeSennaLeavesAnthelminticC. ambrosioidesChenopodiaceaeWorm grassLeavesAnthelminticCocos nuciferaArecaceaeCoconutJellyAnthelminticGossypium speciesMalvaceaeCotton bushLeavesAnthelminticHunters use ethnoveterinary medicines for themselves and their hunting dogs. Plant use for hunting dogs is based on smell and plant morphological characteristics. These plant uses are embedded in a complex cultural context based on indigenous Amerindian beliefs (Heinrich et al. , 1992; Jovel et al. , 1996). Plants are used for snakebites, scorpion stings, for injuries and mange of dogs and to facilitate hunting success. The plants used are: Piper hispidum , Pithecelobium unguis-cati , Bauhinia excisa , Bauhinia cumanensis , Cecropia peltata , Aframomum melegueta , Aristolochia rugosa , Aristolochia trilobata , Jatroph a curcas , Jatropha gossypifolia , Nicotiana tabacum , Vernonia scorpioides , Petiveria alliacea , Renealmia alpinia , Justicia secunda , Phyllanthus urinaria , Phyllanthus niruri , Momordica charantia , Xiphidium caeruleum , Ottonia ovata , Lepianthes peltata , Capsicum frutescens , Dendropanax arboreus , Siparuma guianensis , Syngonium podophyllum , Monstera dubia , Solanum species, Costus scaber , Eclipta prostrata and Spiranthes acaulis , Barleria lupulina , Cola nitida and Acrocomia ierensis .Seventeen plants are used in equine ethnoveterinary medicine, several of which are used similarly in ethnomedicine. Exclusive to the horse case study were the use of Nasturtium officinale to increase blood counts, the use of Pueraria phaseoloides and Stachytarpheta jamaicensis as high protein feeds and the use of Mucuna pruriens as an irritant to enhance performance.The ethnomedicinal plants used in Trinidad and Tobago that did not seem to have ethnoveterinary parallels are summarised in Tables 17a - g. The majority of the ethnoveterinary and ethnomedicinal plants show the lowest level of validity established by Heinrich et al. (1992). This means that the plants (or a closely related species of the same genus) are used in geographically similar or different places for the treatment of similar illnesses. In order to achieve the highest level of validity the ethnobotanical, phytochemical and pharmacological literature has to support the ethnomedicinal use of the plant (Heinrich et al. , 1992).There is evidence that some of the ethnomedicinal plant uses have been transferred from the original countries of Trinidad's first migrants. This finding is matched by those of Voeks (1996) and Davis and Yost (1983) who found that the plant pharmacopoeia in South America is Creolized. The plants used are cultivated, exotic and opportunistic and are found in home gardens, roadsides and secondary forest rather than being indigenous species from the primary forests. Those plants with very few ethnomedicinal references are perhaps the true 'indigenous [to Trinidad] knowledge'. This is a tentative conclusion since it is possible that the relevant ethnomedicinal references for these plants were not found or are still unpublished (in the scientific literature). These 'indigenous' ethnomedicinal plant uses are those that involve Antigonon leptopus , Justicia secunda , Microtea debilis , Eupatorium macrophyllum , Centropogon cornutus , Bontia daphnoides , Parinari campestris , Brownea latifolia , Eupatorium triplinerve , Richeria grandis , Eupatorium triplinerve , Begonia humilis and Sansevieria guineensis . Some of the local claims of medicinal properties of the ethnomedicinal plants have been supported by scientific studies.Chapter 12 looks at the actor networks involved in science and folk medicine, pointing out some of the processes by which knowledge is accepted into or excluded from science. There are some local extension agents, animal health assistants, agricultural chemical agents, scientists and veterinarians who undervalue ethnoveterinary knowledge in favour of the scientific principles in which they were trained. There are others who are actively promoting the use of this knowledge. The reasons for both attitudes towards ethnoveterinary knowledge are examined using the constructivist perspective that all knowledge is socially constructed, with both strengths and weaknesses (Christoplos and Nitsch, 1996; Flora, 1992).Matrix 4. The Trinidad and Tobago scientific and societal actor networkTerms and DefinitionScientist/public responseConsequenceA stabilised network is only stable for those members who form/use/maintain it. Network users who are non-members of the community of practice suffer (Star, 1991). Scientist- communities of practice, have conventions of use.Scientists often take sabbaticals to do research in other countries so they can publish. Scientific texts are networks for the in-crowd. Social management of trust moves from herbalist to professionals.Trinidad and Tobago scientists sign on to the standardised technologies in order to gain from already established external scientific networks. This is a network with established norms.The Gatekeeper standpoint the strategies by which an actor-network becomes indispensable and maintains itself. Eminent scientists become gatekeepers. Gatekeeping influences topic selection and research funding for most scientists.Folk medicine is not 'modern', or 'progressive'. Research is done on 'poisonous' plants, and 'weed' control.Peer review and publishing in the 'right' journals excludes folk medicine from animal health science.An intermediary is anything passing between actors, which defines the relationship between them. Intermediaries describe their networks; they compose them by giving them order and form. Knowledge and funding, scientific articles, drugs, instruments and software are intermediaries (Callon, 1991).'Foreign' science is more profitable career-wise. Agro-chemical shops and Pharmacies sell drugs to farmers without prescriptions leading to abuse of drugs. There is no monitoring of drug residues at the abattoir.'Uncertain' folk medicine discarded in favour of 'certain' imported drugs. Discarding of local knowledge as folklore. Foreign technology becomes embedded in local social networks. Institutionalisation.Every enrolment entails both a failure to enrol and a partial destruction of the world of the non-enrolled (Star, 1991).Rejection of folk medicine as an actor since some involved in the conventional drug industry are afraid of loss of sales if farmers use their own plant-based solutions.The joint creation / nullification of knowledge: Farmers and herbalists want to gain some autonomy and prestige for their own knowledge, but are actively discouraged.Partial signings-on and commitments, no intermediaries, no standardised package, all lead to a Weakly convergent network.Under-funded actors in the Ministry of Agriculture find their status is constantly in question and it is difficult to mobilise other parts of the network.Veterinarians do not get sufficient resources from Government. Without money vets have less power so farmers use their own strategies.Chapter 13 briefly outlined the existing research approach taken to document medicinal plants, an alternative approach promoted by TRAMIL (Traditional Medicine in the Islands), the current bioprospecting environment, the major players and stakes involved and a vision for future research into ethno [veterinary] medicine. This chapter like Chapter 12 documents an attempt to create a shared vision of an approach to medicinal plant research and use that is sustainable and equitable to all the stakeholders (Costanza, 2000).ConclusionIn this research farmer's knowledge is taken and validated scientifically and in the future there are plans to return this validated knowledge to farmers. This approach can be justified in engaged anthropology, one of whose aims is to identify indigenous institutions or processes that could be strengthened and to support processes that could lead to culturally appropriate or effective corrective programs (Rappaport, 1993).The content of Caribbean and other folk pharmacopoeia shows that plant use is based on empiricism: informal clinical trials, observations and experiments (Barsh, 1997; Slikkerveer, 1995). Wagner (1993) has claimed based on a decade of chemical investigations of medicinal plants, that "all plants that are claimed to be antiinfectious, antiviral, antitumoural, or antiparasiticidal are good candidates for potential immunostimulating activities and deserve further investigation." Clinical trials will establish in scientific terms whether the Creole legacy of folk medicine is of positive value for human and animal health.

The landscape in sand dune areas is characterized by the alternate distribution of sand dune and interdune lowland, and the unique floras in these areas are some endemic or rare plant species. In recent years, the decrease in plant species richness and the disappearance of some endemic or rare plant species in these areas have been received special attention, which were listed in the Program of International Biodiversity Conservation, and studied in many countries and districts. In this paper, the research progress in these fields was summarized from the aspects of significance of plant diversity conservation, formation mechanisms of plant diversity, ways of plant diversity conservation, roles of plant diversity research in the development of ecological theories, and important issues in operating plant diversity conservation project. To conserve plant diversity in sand dune areas, attentions should be paid to the differences in conservation goals (to maintain high species richness or to conserve endemic or rare species) among different regions, and the balances between the stabilization of active sand and the conservation of endemic or rare species, and the maintenance of high species richness and the conservation of endemic or rare species. It needed also to consider the sand dune and the interdune lowland as a unified landscape unit to explore the impacts of disturbances and habitat fragment on plant diversity.

The vascular flora of Madeira archipelago is exuberant and diverse, comprising over 1220 species of which 10% are endemic [1]. In this work, nine endemic Asteraceae plant species were studied for their phenolic profile and anti-hyperglycemic effects. The interest and selection of these species are related to their use in folk medicine. Two main groups of plants were analyzed: Helichrysum subspecies (H. devium Johns, H. melaleucum Rchb. ex. Holl, H. monizii Lowe and H. obconicum DC.) and other five endemic species: Argyranthemum pinnatifidum Lowe, Artemisia argentea L'Her, Calendula maderensis DC, Cynara cardunculus L. var. ferocissima and Phagnalon lowei DC. Alcoholic extracts were evaluated for their inhibitory activity towards key enzymes linked to type 2 diabetes using in vitro assays. Six extracts showed stronger inhibitory efficacy [IC50 0.57 to 1.35 mg/mL] than commercial drug acarbose (positive control, IC50 1.62 mg/mL) towards α-glucosidase; exceptions were H. monizii, C. maderensis and C. cardunculus. All extracts were less active than the control towards α-amylase (IC50 ranging from 1.5 to 9.1 mg/mL versus 0.02 of acarbose). Phenolic profiles were obtained by HPLC-MSn and caffeoylquinic acid derivatives (esterified with several acyl groups) were found as the main compounds in all plant species under analysis, ranging from 86 (A. glandulosa leaves) to 1918 (P. lowei leaves) mg/100 g of dry plant. The anti-diabetic properties of these caffeoylquinic acid derivatives have been extensively reported [2, 3]. Four out of ten studied species (A. argentea, A. pinnatifidum, H. melaleucum and P. lowei) are potent inhibitors of α-glucosidase with moderate lipase and low α-amylase inhibition, which is ideal for preventing bacterial fermentation of excessive indigested carbohydrates in the colon.

Replenishment of databases with genetic information of various species is necessary to solve topical issues of their taxonomy and systematics. One way to obtain genetic data from herbarium vouchers is to determine the nucleotide sequences of individual nuclear and chloroplast regions, which are widely used for molecular identification and plant phylogeny. Rare and endemic plant species are often the least represented in the genetic databases. In this work, we studied endemic plant species: Astragalus angarensis, Hedysarum turczaninovii, Hedysarum zundukii, Oxytropis popoviana, Papaver popovii, Gueldenstaedtia verna, Tulipa uniflora, Eutrema cordifolium, Megadenia pygmaea, Mannagettaea hummelii which have different conservation status in the Irkutsk Region and in the Republic of Buryatia. For Papaver popovii and Astragalus angarensis, genetic data have been obtained for the first time; for other species, information on universal DNA barcodes has been supplemented. In addition, genetic differences between Mannagettaea from the Republic of Buryatia and the type species Mannagettaea hummelii Harry Sm. (China) were shown. More detailed study on Mannagettaea is necessary to clarify its species diversity. Thus, results obtained supplemented the genetic information of the vouchers of the species presented in the herbarium of the Siberian Institute of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (SIPPB SB RAS). This DNA-barcoding expands application of the herbarium in integrative studies using genetic data and contributes to the further study of rare endemic species of the Baikal Region.

Aim To understand the distribution pattern of endemic plant species in West African rain forests, one of the global priority areas for biodiversity conservation.Location Upper Guinean forests, West Africa (Senegal, Guinea‐Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana and Togo).Methods We used herbarium collections from the whole Upper Guinean region (sensuWhite 1981) to analyse the distribution patterns of 216 vascular plant species (approximately one‐third of the endemic flora ranging from herbs to trees) that are restricted to these rain forests. We related species distribution ranges and species commonness to the main environmental variables and species life‐history traits.Results We found that most endemic species of West African forests have large distribution ranges and ruderal strategies. Among all plant life‐forms, species with small ranges were restricted to very moist places whereas more widespread species were less dependent on the availability of water. These more common species seem able to tolerate drier conditions, indicated by the minimum rainfall conditions where they are found and the positive correlation with local habitat openness. Light‐demanding endemics were more common and widespread than shade‐tolerant species, and there was a trend towards wind‐dispersed species having a higher proportion of records in open places. This suggests that how widespread and common an endemic species is depends on being able to tolerate open and drier conditions.Main conclusions A ruderal strategy seems to be key for understanding the success of endemics in the Upper Guinean forests, and indicates the important role of disturbances in shaping the composition of these tropical forests. Our results have large implications for predicting the potential effect of increasing drought on rare endemic plant species of West African forests.

This comprehensive reference explores medicinal plants, phytomedicines, and traditional herbal remedies as potential sources for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19. It features 9 chapters authored and edited by renowned experts. The book specifically highlights the promising drug discovery opportunities grounded in bioactive compounds from medicinal plants and herbal medicines, offering insights into combatting SARS-CoV-2 infections and respiratory complications. Key Highlights: Drug Discovery Potential: Explores the vast potential of medicinal plants, phytomedicine, and traditional remedies against COVID-19, shedding light on groundbreaking drug discovery avenues. Cutting-Edge Insights: Provides up-to-date insights into the use of medicinal plants, herbal drugs, and traditional medicines in the fight against COVID-19. Natural Immune Boosters: Details the use of indigenous herbs, spices, functional foods, and herbal drugs for boosting immunity and preventing SARS-CoV-2 infections. Drug Repurposing: Highlights innovative drug repurposing strategies using phytomedicine-derived bioactive compounds and phytochemical databases for COVID-19 drug development. Additional features of the book include a reader-friendly introduction to each topic and a list of references for advanced readers. This timely reference is an informative resource for a broad range of readers interested in strategies to control COVID-19, including postgraduate researchers, and pharmaceutical R&D experts. It also serves as a handbook for professionals in clinical and herbal medicine.