Radio Frequency Exposure in Military Contexts: A Narrative Review of Thermal Effects and Safety Considerations.

Introduction: Communication between mobile phones and antenna BTS (Base Transceiver station) is carried by electromagnetic waves. Energy associated with these waves can be absorbed by biological tissues. so Widespread use of these devices has generated public concern about exposure to electromagnetic waves. In this study the electric field intensity and specific absorption rate in the radiology, emergency, general hospitalized and diagnostic laboratory departments was obtained in Arak, IRAN Materials and Methods: In this study, using radiometer (TES 592), the electric field measurements were performed in two modes of average (Average = Avg.) And Maximum Average (Max. Avg.) For six minutes in accordance with the recommendations of the ICNIRP and IEEE Committees in the 900 MHz frequency. then using the equation Specific Absorption Rate induced in brain, skin, fat and bone tissues were calculated and compared with the thresholds recommended by the International Commissions Results: The results showed that the mean value of the electric field was 1.334 V/m which is almost 2.7% threshold introduced by International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) and 2.6% threshold adopted by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The highest SAR value was calculated 1.6W / Kg for skin that is lower than the threshold values of ICNIRP(2W/Kg) and IEEE(1.6W/Kg) Conclusion:The results of the present study showed that for both quantities in Arak hospitals the values greater than the threshold announced by committees such as IEEE and ICNIRP are not observed. To deal with the concerns of the community that is generally caused by a lack of awareness the educational and public awareness programs should be developed

Due to the frequent usage of mobile phones these days, its harmful effects on biological systems has become a rising concern. Various international organizations like International Commission on Non-ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP), U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) have set safety guidelines on portable devices to limit the harmful effects of Radio Frequency (RF) radiations. Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) is a quantity that has been used by researchers to evaluate these safety limits on mobile phones. Exceeding these limits, leads to detrimental effects in biological systems. This paper discusses effects of RF radiations emitted by mobile phones on human body in terms of their SAR values. The SAR values are computed on human models to evaluate their effect on various body organs. Parameters affecting SAR values like age-related differences in RF absorption in human head models, mobile antenna tilt angle with respect to head and effect of using mobile phones inside elevators have been discussed. Moreover, methods for SAR reduction to limit RF exposure have also been analyzed.

Purpose: The widespread use of mobile phones and Base Transceiver Stations (BTSs) has generated public concern about exposure to Electromagnetic (EM) waves. In this study, the electric field intensity and Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) in the emergency, general hospitalization, radiology, and laboratory departments of four hospitals in Arak (Iran) are reported. Materials and Methods: Electric field strength in the 900 MHz frequency band was obtained using a TES 592 radiometer. Then, SAR induced in the brain, skin, fat and bone tissues were calculated based on equations and the obtained values were compared with the thresholds recommended by the International Commissions. Results: The obtained results showed that the electric field’s mean value was 1.334 V/m which is almost 2.7% of the threshold introduced by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) and 2.6% of the threshold adopted by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The highest SAR value was 1.6 W/kg for the skin, which is lower than the threshold values presented by ICNIRP (2 W/kg) and IEEE (1.6 W/kg). Conclusion: The findings of the present work show that for both quantities in Arak hospitals the SAR values are less than the thresholds announced by IEEE and ICNIRP committees. To deal with the concerns of the community that is generally caused by a lack of awareness, the executions of educational and public awareness programs are recommended.

To investigate the influence of dentures on electromagnetic energy absorption during the daily use of a mobile phone, a high-resolution head phantom based on the Visible Chinese Human dataset was reconstructed. Simulations on phantoms with various dentures were performed by using the finite-difference time-domain method with a 0.47 wavelength dipole antenna and a mobile phone model as radiation sources at 900 and 1800 MHz. The Specific energy Absorption Rate (SAR) values including 1 and 10 g average SAR values were assessed. When the metallic dental crowns with resonance lengths of approximately one-third to one-half wavelength in the tissue nearby are parallel to the radiation source, up to 121.6% relative enhancement for 1 g average SAR and 17.1% relative enhancement for 10 g average SAR are observed due to the resonance effect in energy absorption. When the radiation sources operate in the normal configuration, the 10 g average SAR values are still in compliance with the basic restrictions established by the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) and the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP), indicating that the safety limits will not be challenged by the usage of dentures.

Establishing the health risks of exposure to radiofrequency fields requires multidisciplinary research

The investigation on the effect of mobile phone towards adult head in Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) Distribution and SAR in Weight is presented in this paper. Finite Different Time-Domain (FDTD) was used to construct adult head modeling with the attachment of monopole antenna and also to do a simulation in obtaining the SAR Distribution and SAR in Weight either 1g or 10g weight value, respectively. From the simulation, the results show that the values of both SAR are small and do not exceed 4W/kg stated by International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP), National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement (NCRP) and Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The simulation covered 900MHz and 1800MHz frequency with 0.6W radiated power.

Wireless communications play a crucial role in human lives. The introduction of cellular network systems, broadband internet services and public Wi-Fi services increase the connectivity between people exponentially. These wireless networks require antenna structures to propagate carrier waves through space and these waves are located within the Radiofrequency (RF) region in the electromagnetic spectrum. The effects of these RF waves on people, especially children, and pregnant women cannot be neglected. According to the researchers, there are some adverse health issues related to thermal and non-thermal effects due to exposure to these non-ionizing radiations. In this study, RF exposure levels within the proximity of 21 selected kindergartens in the Colombo and Kandy districts were evaluated by using a high-frequency spectrum analyzer. Results of the study show a nearly 251% increase in the RF exposure levels in the kindergartens located in Colombo district relative to the kindergartens in Kandy district. As well as GSM900, GSM1800 and UMTS cellular communication bands show a higher contribution to background RF exposure than the other wireless networks. However, measured maximum electric fields and calculated specific absorption rate (SAR) values are well below the maximum permissible levels published by International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP).

The International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) guidelines and the IEEE C95.1 standard are currently under revision. In the guidelines/standard, the dominant effect for electromagnetic field exposures at frequencies above 100 kHz is the thermal effect. The whole-body-and 10g-averaged specific absorption rates (SARs), which are surrogates for core and local temperature elevations, respectively, are set as metrics for exposure evaluation. The external field strengths or incident power density, corresponding to the limit for SARs, are also used as metrics for practical compliance purposes. Although the limits for the SARs are identical amongst the guidelines/standard, the limits for the external field strengths differ by a factor of 7.4–12.9 in an intermediate frequency range (100 kHz–100 MHz). Due to the fact that the standard/guidelines were published before the computation with anatomical human models was available, it is worth revisiting the relationship between the SARs and external field strengths by computations using the human models. Intercomparison using different numerical codes was also performed to verify the results. For the main finding, as expected, the 10g-averaged SAR was a less restrictive factor for whole-body exposure over the frequencies considered in this paper. It was also found that the relationship between SARs and external field strength was satisfied, but was more conservative in the ICNIRP guidelines, whereas there were slight discrepancies below 30 MHz in the IEEE standard. The computational results would be useful for revising the permissible external field strength based on scientific results.

272 Background: Tumor Treating Fields (TTFields), an antimitotic cancer treatment, utilizes low intensity (1-3 V/cm), intermediate frequency (100-300 kHz), alternating electric fields delivered non-invasively by transducer arrays placed on skin over tumor region. Safety of TTFields has been established in pancreatic cancer (Phase II study; PANOVA; NCT01971281). A Phase 3 study in locally-advanced pancreatic cancer (PANOVA-3) and a phase 2 study in hepatocellular cancer are ongoing. Preclinical studies suggest that TTFields’ intensity correlates with treatment efficacy. Simulations can determine the thermal safety of TTFields by evaluating tissue heating due to field absorption and resultant risk of thermal damage. We used computational simulations to study the effectiveness of field distribution and associated heating in realistic phantoms during TTFields delivery to the abdomen. Methods: Delivery of TTFields to computational phantoms of a male (DUKE 3.0), a female (ELLA 3.0) and an obese male (FATS 3.0) was simulated. For each phantom, 6-8 different transducer array layouts to the abdomen were tested. Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) levels were calculated to assess the risk of thermal damage to tissues, and compared to the SAR control level of 10 W/kg per International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) guidelines for occupational exposure (Health Physics 74 (4) 494; 1998). The field intensities were measured to determine the effectiveness of treatment delivery. Results: Altering the size and position of the arrays facilitates field intensities above the therapeutic threshold of 1 V/cm. Within the abdominal internal organs, the SAR values were generally below the ICNIRP recommended level of 10 W/kg. The maximum SAR levels did not exceed 20 W/kg. Conclusions: TTFields could be delivered at intensities above therapeutic threshold of 1 V/cm by strategizing the array size and placement. TTFields to the abdomen can be delivered to target gastrointestinal cancers without causing thermal damage to abdominal tissues. These results also indicate that TTFields delivery can be optimized in gastrointestinal cancers.

History of exposure limits can be listed as follows; American National Standard Institute (ANSI) has identified that exposure limits were 10 mW/cm2 averaged over 6 minutes in 1966 and 1974. Partial body irradiation must be included since it has been shown that some parts of the human body (e.g., eyes, testicles) may be harmed if exposed to incident radiation levels significantly in excess of the recommended levels. Today’s standards allow partial body irradiation to be 20 times higher than whole body radiation. ANSI recognized the “the invariable presence of electrical hotspots in the irradiated body.” In 1982. A threshold of behavioral disruption was established: 4 W/kg” therefore a 10-fold “safety factor” SARWB=0.4 W/kg. Behavioral disruption is irreversible: “The assumption is that reversible disruption during an acute exposure is tantamount to irreversible injury during chronic exposure”. In 1991, Institute of Electrical and Electron Engineers (IEEE) mentioned two tier exposure level; partial body specific absorption rate (SAR) and whole body SAR are no longer identic. It was searched electrical workers and general public. Exposure of general public was calculated as SARWB=0.08 W/kg; SARSP=1.6 W/kg, 30 minute average, also exposure of electrical workers calculated as SARWB=0.4 W/kg; SARSP=8 W/kg, 6 minute average. It has observed 5 fold lower SAR; 5-fold longer exposure between groups. Specific absorption rate is formulated as SAR= (σ/ρ)*E2, where σ is the conductivity of the tissue, ρ is the tissue density, and E is the electric field. However, E is a function of the electrical parameter permittivity, e,“the resistance that is encountered when forming an electric field in a medium. Higher conductivity increases; higher tissue density decreases; higher permittivity decreases the SAR. However, children’s absorption of microwave radiation is greater than adults. It was found that ICNIRP’s 2 W/kg, 10 g spatial peak SAR results in 2.3-3 times higher SAR than FCC’s 1.6 W/kg, 1g spatial peak SAR. It was showed that 1-g SAR of brain tissues of children is about two times higher than adults. At the same time another group of researchers asserted that hypocampus and hypothalamus receive 1.6-3.1 higher SAR in children compared to adults; children’s bone marrow receive 10 times higher SAR than adults; children receive higher SAR to the eyes than adults; children’s cerebellum receive >2.5xhigher SAR than adults. Greatly underestimating the SAR for typical mobile phone users, especially children. A superior computer simulation certification process has been approved by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) but is not employed to certify cell phones. In the United States, the FCC determines maximum allowed exposures. Many countries, especially European Union members, use the “guidelines” of International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP), a non governmental agency. The SAR for a 10-year old is up to 153% higher than the SAR for the SAM model. When electrical properties are considered, a child’s head’s absorption can be over two times greater, and absorption of the skull’s bone marrow can be ten times greater than adults. Therefore, a new certification process is needed that incorporates different modes of use, head sizes, and tissue properties.

Vol. 118, No. 1 PerspectivesOpen AccessThe Precautionary Principle: Dolan and Rowley Respond Mike Dolan Jack Rowley Mike Dolan Search for more papers by this author and Jack Rowley Search for more papers by this author Published:1 January 2010https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.0901370RAboutSectionsPDF ToolsDownload CitationsTrack Citations ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InReddit We thank Zinelis for his interest in our article (Dolan and Rowley 2009). However, it appears from his comments on the recommendations of the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP), that he misunderstands the scientific basis and scope of the evidence used to establish those exposure guidelines. The ICNIRP (1998) stated clearly that for the frequencies relevant to mobile communications the restrictions are “provided to prevent whole-body heat stress and excessive localized tissue heating.” This is based on evidence of established health effects. In respect to claims of effects from low-level and modulated exposures, the ICNIRP (1998) stated thatOverall, the literature on athermal effects of AM [amplitude modulated] electromagnetic fields is so complex, the validity of reported effects so poorly established, and the relevance of the effects to human health is so uncertain, that it is impossible to use this body of information as a basis for setting limits on human exposure to these fields.The ICNIRP keeps the scientific evidence under review and recently restated that the 1998 recommendations remain valid (ICNIRP 2009), again noting in respect of claims of nonthermal affects thatWith regard to non-thermal interactions, it is in principle impossible to disprove their possible existence but the plausibility of the various non-thermal mechanisms that have been proposed is very low.Zinelis makes an analogy with risks from asbestos; however, this is flawed. By way of example, animal studies show evidence of harm from exposure to asbestos (International Agency for Research on Cancer 1987), whereas in respect to radiofrequency exposures, the animal studies consistently show that carcinogenic effects are not likely, even at exposure levels above those from mobile telephones (Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks 2009).We do accept the involuntary nature of exposure to radio signals from base stations; this in integral to providing the mobile phone services that almost 4 billion people voluntarily use and is a matter for risk perception, not risk assessment. We conclude by reiterating that the precautionary principle cannot be used to justify measures to restrict radio frequency exposures from mobile phones or base stations when there is no scientifically plausible evidence of a hazard to human health.ReferencesDolan M, Rowley J. 2009. The precautionary principle in the context of mobile phone and base station radiofrequency exposures. Environ Health Perspect 117:1329-133219750093. Link, Google ScholarICNIRP (International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection). 1998. Guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic fields (up to 300 GHz). Health Phys 74(4):494-5229525427. Medline, Google ScholarICNIRP (International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection). 2009. Guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic fields (up to 300 GHz). Health Phys 97(3):257-25819667809. Crossref, Medline, Google ScholarInternational Agency for Research on Cancer. 1987. Asbestos. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risk Hum 14(suppl 7):106-116Available: http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/suppl7/Suppl7-20.pdf[accessed 8 December 2009]. Google ScholarScientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks. 2009. Health Effects of Exposure to EMFAvailable: http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_risk/committees/04_scenihr/docs/scenihr_o_022.pdf[accessed 15 September 2009]. Google ScholarFiguresReferencesRelatedDetails Vol. 118, No. 1 January 2010Metrics About Article Metrics Publication History Originally published1 January 2010Published in print1 January 2010 Financial disclosuresPDF download License information EHP is an open-access journal published with support from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health. All content is public domain unless otherwise noted. Note to readers with disabilities EHP strives to ensure that all journal content is accessible to all readers. However, some figures and Supplemental Material published in EHP articles may not conform to 508 standards due to the complexity of the information being presented. If you need assistance accessing journal content, please contact [email protected]. Our staff will work with you to assess and meet your accessibility needs within 3 working days.

Research on the biological and health efiects of radiofrequency (RF) flelds has been conducted for more than 50 years and the RF database available in the 1990's proved adequate for the development of the human exposure limits recommended in 1998 by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) (1). The ICNIRP guidelines are recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) and have been adopted by more than 35 countries. The database that led to the development of the ICNIRP guidelines has grown, with about 500 studies at mobile phone frequencies including many modulated signals. The WHO database (2) has more than 1500 original, peer-reviewed papers useful for public health risk assessment of RF exposure. The database provides even stronger evidence today that RF exposures within ICNIRP limits associated with mobile telephony pose no known health risks and warrant no special precautions for any segments of the population. WHO has stated that scientiflc knowledge on electromagnetic flelds including RF flelds is now more extensive than for most chemicals (3). Expert scientiflc organizations, international organizations and government agencies that have reviewed the available database since the publication of the ICNIRP guidelines include the UK Independent Expert Group on Mobile Phones (Stewart Report) (2000); German Commission on Radiological Protection (2001); Australian Communications Authority (2003); French Environmental Health and Safety Agency (2003); Swedish Radiation Protection Authority (2003), Health Council of the Netherlands (2004); UK Advisory Group on Non-Ionising Radiation (2004), UK National Radiological Protection Board (2004); US Food and Drug Administration (2005); and the World Health Organization (2005, 2006). All of these reviews have consistently concluded that there is no credible or convincing evidence that RF exposure within ICNIRP limits causes adverse human health efiects. This paper describes a) the extensive database on the biological and health efiects of exposure to RF energy, b) the ICNIRP RF safety guidelines, and c) recent conclusions of national and international expert groups that have evaluated the scientiflc and medical evidence on the potential health efiects of RF exposure. DOI: 10.2529/PIERS060906133215 1. RADIOFREQUENCY (RF) DATABASE

Cardiac pacemaker is an electronic device used to regulate the heartbeat of patients suffering with congenital heart defects. Considering the limitations in lifespan of current cardiac pacemaker battery, a wireless charging mechanism for cardiac pacemaker is proposed in this paper. Circuitry model and electromagnetic geometry is developed using Ansys Maxwell and Ansys High-Frequency Structure Simulator (HFSS) software to analyze three main technical issues such as: implantation, efficiency and safety. Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) and induced electric field in a 3-D model human body is evaluated by numerical analysis and simulation to ensure that the developed system adheres to safety limits proposed by Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) standard and International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) guidelines.

Worldwide standards on exposure to electromagnetic fields: an overview

This study investigates the radio-frequency electromagnetic field exposure (RF-EMF) levels in pedestrians generated by vehicular communication technology. We specifically investigated exposure levels in children of different ages and both genders. This study also compares the children’s exposure levels generated by such technology with those of an adult investigated in our previous study. The exposure scenario consisted of a 3D-CAD model of a vehicle equipped with two vehicular antennas operating at 5.9 GHz, each fed with 1 W power. Four child models were analyzed near the front and back of the car. The RF-EMF exposure levels were expressed as the Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) calculated over the whole body and 10 g mass (SAR10g) of the skin and 1 g mass (SAR1g) of the eyes. The maximum SAR10g value of 9 mW/kg was found in the skin of the head of the tallest child. The maximum whole-body SAR was 0.18 mW/kg and was found in the tallest child. As a general result, it was found that children’s exposure levels are lower than those of adults. All the SAR values are well below the limits recommended by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) in the general population.