Racial and Gender Inequality in the Labor Market among Graduates from Brazilian Federal Universities

This longitudinal evaluation of gender inequalities and economic growth addresses key questions in the evolving debate over the character of gender differentiation and the goals of womens empowerment. These questions include: 1) whether the impact of strategies of economic growth served to enhance or undermine the status of women; 2) whether changes in the status of women were accompanied by significant changes in gender inequality; and 3) the implications for existing debates. Section I reviews several sets of literature pertinent to the questions using three general approaches: modernization-neoclassical women in development and gender and development. Section II presents the data and methods used in the evaluation. The research assessed the contending interpretations reviewed in the first section by combining another set of cross-sectional and longitudinal data on womens status and inequalities between men and women with other existing indicators. Section III discusses the results in the following order: 1) cross-sectional patterns in womens status; 2) trends in womens status; 3) cross-sectional patterns in inequality between men and women; 4) trends in inequality between men and women; and 5) conclusion. Finally section IV presents an overall discussion of the findings of the whole longitudinal evaluation.

Racial and Gender Inequality as a (Non)Crisis: The Discursive Strategies of Academic-Managers in Belgian and Danish universities

Demographic security under the uneven replacement of population due to significant fluctuations in birthrates is one of the most important problems for many states and global communities. According to the numerous studies, the developed countries face the challenge of depopulation and need to increase fertility, while the developing countries experience demographic boom and need to reduce fertility. The article considers the dynamics of fertility rates in the BRICS countries in the context of gender inequality in labor relations. The authors show that gender discrimination in labor relations affects fertility. The BRICS countries demonstrate that the lower birthrate the higher the level of women’s employment, of women’s wages, of gender equality in the economic sphere, and the larger the share of female students in the higher education. For the contemporary Russian society this correlation is reverse. The BRICS group consists mainly of developing countries, whose demographic transition has not yet been completed. For this reason, these countries demonstrate a negative correlation between fertility and gender inequality in the labor market. According to the sociological research findings, women there are still challenged with the choice between family and employment. Significant gender inequality in the labor market is an additional factor that forces women into the sphere of family employment. Gender discrimination in the labor market in Russia has a completely different impact on the birthrate than in other BRICS countries: a lower level of gender inequality in the labor market, on the contrary, contributes to the higher fertility. On the one hand, the higher level of gender equality in the labor market makes it easier for women to combine family employment and career, which results in larger number of children per family. On the other hand, the tradition to have several children declines. Therefore, the gender equality policy in a long run determines a smaller number of children per family in the future.

Gender inequality in the labor market is a common occurrence across the developed or least developed countries. The objective of the study was to explore how the nature and extent of gender inequality in the labor market vary between a developed and a least developed country. In this regard, the Czech Republic as a developed and Bangladesh as a least developed country were selected purposively considering their socioeconomic status. A quantitative content analysis was done to compare the gender inequality in labor market using key databases including Labor Force Survey 2010 of Bangladesh, Labor Force Survey 2013 of Czech Republic, Eurostat 2014, ILO 2013, and World Bank 2012. The findings reveal that for the labor force participation, the number of Bangladeshi women (36 percent) is found less than half of men (82.5 percent) whereas, in Czech, the difference between men (68.1 percent) and women (59.5 percent) is much lower in this sector. While women in both countries failed to keep pace with men in employment, this gap is broader in Bangladesh. Moreover, in two countries, women’s appearance in higher level positions such as administrative, managerial and technical remain negligible and gender pay gap is found 21 percent for the Czech Republic and 25 percent for Bangladesh. In general, although gender inequality persists in the labor market of both countries, the ratio of inequalities is minor in the Czech labor market than that of Bangladesh. Attending of women in technical and vocational education and promoting gender blind mindset during recruitment can ensure gender equality in the labor market to a great extent. This study calls for integrating new dimensions of gender inequality such as underemployment, parenting and unemployment, and comparing more than two countries to have a holistic picture,which could stimulate dialogue of social research.

Fedoryshyna L.M., Makartetska V.S., Rohozha A.O., Havrysh A.V. MANIFESTATIONS OF INEQUALITY IN THE ACADEMIC ENVIRONMENT AND ON THE LABOUR MARKET AND COMMUNICATIVE TECHNOLOGIES FOR OVERCOMING IT Purpose. The aim of the article is to investigate the manifestations of inequality in the academic environment and on the labour market, to form the causes of its occurrence and possible ways to overcome it, as well as outlining the role of communication technologies in this process. Methodology of research. The following research methods were used to achieve the set goal, in particular: analysis, monographic, abstract and logical, generalization ‒ to consider the essence of inequality and its types, to formulate the causes of inequality in the academic environment and on the labour market, possible ways to eliminate it; survey using the Google form ‒ to identify the opinions of higher education applicants regarding the manifestations of inequality in the academic environment and employees regarding the manifestations of inequality in the labour market; tabular ‒ to systematize and better visualize the results of the conducted study. Findings. The essence and types of inequality is considered. The causes of inequality in the academic environment and on the labour market is generalized. The reasons for its appearance in the academic environment include unequal access to quality education, financial barriers, stereotypes and prejudices, inequality in academic opportunities, academic nepotism and favouritism, differences in digital competencies, and in the labour market ‒ the educational gap, gender inequality, stigmatization of certain social groups, ageism, unequal access to vacancies, information asymmetry, outsourcing, etc. A survey of education seekers is conducted regarding manifestations of inequality in the academic environment, which made it possible to establish that the seekers we surveyed mostly do not encounter its manifestations in their own educational institutions and the majority indicate that all students have equal opportunities. In contrast, the results of a survey of employees regarding manifestations of inequality in the labour market showed that more than half of those surveyed had encountered them personally, in particular ageism and sexism. Ways to overcome inequality in the academic environment and in the labour market was formed. The role of communication technologies in overcoming inequality is outlined. Originality. The study of manifestations of inequality in the academic environment and on the labour market has received further development, which made it possible to form possible ways to overcome it in modern conditions. Practical value. The results of the conducted research can become the basis for the development of programs to overcome manifestations of inequality in the academic environment and on the labour market, as well as further scientific research in this direction. Key words: inequality, manifestations of inequality, ageism, gender inequality, prejudice, stereotypes, labour market, academic environment, overcoming inequality, communication technologies, digital platforms, digital communications.

Introduction. Gender equality in the labor market, which implies equal rights for men and women in terms of employment opportunities and wages, has become the subject of active discussions in scientific circles. Overcoming gender inequality in the labor market is a guarantee not only of the harmonious development of a professional career and the creation of equal conditions for all employees, regardless of gender, but also of increasing the efficiency of the labor force uses. The research of the 2023 Nobel laureate in Economics, Claudia Goldin, actualized the need for a more detailed study of the problem, in particular given the fact that under the conditions of war in Ukraine, changes in the dynamics of women’s participation are taking place both in social and political processes that require making important decisions, and in the market labor in general. Purpose of the article – to substantiate the contribution of K. Goldin, laureate of the 2023 Nobel Prize in Economics, to the development of economic science in the context of building a model of gender equality in the labor market. Methods. During the preparation of the article, general scientific methods of research were used: analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, mathematical methods, which contributed to the greatest extent to the understanding of K. Goldin’s scientific views on the problem of gender equality in the labor market. Results. The contribution of the 2023 Nobel laureate in Economics, K. Goldin, to the understanding of the “theory of discrimination”, according to which men and women have different actual and imaginary qualification characteristics, which serve as the basis for the emergence of gender inequality in the labor market, was substantiated. Discrimination can increase differences in the professional competences of employees or lead to their appearance in the case of career growth, if some of them are more visible than others. The historical nature of the model of gender inequality in the labor market proposed by K. Goldin, which is hidden in past experience and has an impact on the current situation within the studied market, was revealed. The dynamic development of the economics, technological changes, which led to the narrowing of the minimum level of competences necessary for the performance of professional functions, in the historical context led to the appearance of women in the labor market, which, at the same time, served as a signal for changing the standards of professions. A key feature of the model proposed by K. Goldin is the information asymmetry, in which the society does not know the level of productivity of a specific job applicant. Based on this, her admission to the profession will “contaminate” the status of existing male workers in it. This kind of prejudice can be eliminated by introducing mechanisms for transparent attestation of professions. Most professions are not inherently male or female. Mostly, the “aura of gender” arises due to rhetoric related to the perception of established norms regarding the use of certain forms of physical capital. In the research process, one of the aspects of discrimination in women’s wages was revealed, which is related to the rejection of piece-work contracts in favor of monthly wages for employees who work for a long time. It was established that in the case of differences in physical strength, endurance or intensity of work, there are prerequisites for the acquisition of “secondary sexual characteristics” by professions. Discussion. K. Goldin’s scientific contribution serves as a basis for further research into gender problems in the labor market, which may be caused by various factors depending on the period of social development. In particular, Ukraine today is actively developing national qualification standards in accordance with European requirements, promoting digital development and expanding opportunities for women in the labor market. 2023 Nobel Laureate in Economics Claudia Goldin’s research overall provides a better understanding of the historical context of labor markets, as well as what they are today and where they will be in the future.

This research aims to analyze the effect of climate shocks on employability and gender inequalities in the labor market in Togo. In order to achieve this, the logit model was used to estimate the effect of climate shocks on the employability of men and women, and then the non-linear Fairlie decomposition made it possible to highlight the contribution of climate shocks to gender inequalities. We used data from the 2021 Harmonized Household Living Conditions Survey (EHCVM). The main results obtained are: (i) climate shocks have a negative and significant effect on the employability of men and women by reducing their chance of participating in the labor market by 1.3% and 4% respectively; (ii) climate shocks contribute 1.32 percentage points to the accentuation of gender inequalities in the labor market. In light of these results, we suggest that the gender dimension be effectively taken into account in all forms of decision-making, and more particularly in response to climate shocks as well as challenges related to employability in the labor market.

This paper systematizes theoretical concepts, which explain the role of higher education in the formation of the gender inequality in the labour market as well as empirical studies, which consider the formation of the gender wage inequality in all the stages of the interaction between individual and educational system (enrolment, studying and graduation). Theoretical part considers the impact of education on gender inequality through the lenses of human capital theory, compensating wage differentials, theories of discrimination and segregation, as well as through gender-oriented approach in education. The study also presents current trends in gender inequality in education and labour market in Russia. Additionally, we systematize international experience in policy measures related to smoothing of the gender inequality in education and the labour market and we propose measures which can be applicable for that purpose in Russia.

The study identifies the effect of trade liberalization on gender inequality in labor market, welfare, and empowerment in the emerging economies considering the significance of gender inequality issue in sustainable development goals (SDGs). It uses global gender gap index (GGGI) and its four sub-indexes namely economic participation and opportunity, education, health and politics as indicators of gender inequality in different aspects. Due to the problem of endogeneity and the presence of time-invariant variables Hausman-Taylor estimation technique has been applied to a panel data set of 40 countries for the period of 2006-2014. The results of the study suggest that trade openness significantly reduces gender inequality in labor market in high growth EAGLE and NEST countries but increase the inequality in other emerging economies. The effect of trade openness in reducing gender inequality in welfare and empowerment is positive, but higher trade increases health gap in other emerging economies. The effects of culture and religion on gender inequality are mixed and differ substantially across countries. According to the findings of the study, trade and government expenditure can be used as essential tools to achieve gender equality goal of SDGs if the proper policy is adopted.

The theme of gender inequality of character for many countries of the world. Particularly acute is the issue of inequality in the labor market in countries with a problem of low levels of natural reproduction of the population. One of the countries with this demographic problem is Russia. The purpose of this work is to identify the most relevant measures to combat gender inequality in the labor market of the Russian Federation. The author analyzed the works on this topic by domestic authors, for example, N.V. Zubarevich, A.S. Budyakova. In addition, in retrospect, the measures taken by the PRC government to combat inequality in the labor market were considered. Learning from Chinas experience in fighting inequality in the labor market can be useful for Russia and other countries, as China is one of the largest economies in the world and has already made significant progress in this area. The theoretical analysis carried out made it possible to identify a number of measures that can be adopted from the PRC, for example, the promotion of entrepreneurial activity among women. The author also proposed some measures derived from the work of domestic researchers.

What would it take to revive the trends observed during the “gender revolution”? This chapter examines the various dimensions of gender inequality to identify the mechanisms driving it, the forces that initially propelled the “revolution,” and those that later inhibited its progress. It reviews recent long-term trends in gender equality and inequality across different contexts, focusing on both paid and unpaid work. It introduces an analytical distinction between three key factors that sustain gender inequality—individual-level factors, workplace-level factors, and structural factors—to show that individual-level factors played a crucial role in driving the gender revolution, but that institutional and structural barriers have contributed to its stagnation. Understanding the interplay of these mechanisms is essential for developing adequate responses. Based on this framework, the chapter concludes with a discussion of the challenges of gender inequality in the new economy, emphasizing that only a combination of structural, organizational, and cultural changes can propel progress toward gender equality in the labor market.

This study is related to a growing literature on the impact of a receiving context on immigrant labour market outcomes. Unlike previous comparative research, which has been primarily concerned with immigrant men, our focus is on immigrant women and the role of institutions particularly relevant to them. Using the European Union Labour Force Surveys (2011–5) augmented with country-level data, we estimate country fixed-effects models to study gender and ethnic inequalities in labour force participation across European countries. Our results underline the complexity of how family policies and gender-egalitarian contexts are related to gender and ethnic inequalities in the labour market. On the one hand, we find gender inequalities to be less pronounced in countries with more generous family policies and a higher gender-egalitarian climate. On the other hand, our results indicate that at the same time, the selected institutional characteristics are related to increased ethnic inequalities in the labour market.

The gendered imbalance in the division of labour has been present since the late 19th century, when women’s labour was exploited and underpaid in the wage market. Occupational and professional gender inequalities between women and men continue to persist today. This paper provides an overview of the theoretical explanations and concepts used to analyse gender inequalities in professional careers. In addition to gender stereotypes and roles, other terms that conceptualise gender inequalities in the labour market are discussed, such as ‘gender pay gap’, horizontal and vertical segregation, evaluative discrimination, and ‘glass ceiling’. In addition, both theoretical economic approaches, which emphasise the role of human capital and explain discrimination against women in the labour market by expectations of lower productivity, and sociological approaches, which highlight other significant issues for career and career advancement, such as power differentials, social and cultural norms and values, ‘social closure’, or the importance of social capital and social networks, are discussed. The final part of the paper highlights key aspects of the debate and makes some observations on the need for more integrative and practice-oriented research in this area.

This paper investigates gender differences in the short- and longer-term impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on employment status in Argentina. Using individual cross-sectional and panel data from household surveys, we compare employment status (inactive, unemployed, self-employed, or employed, distinguishing between the formal and informal sectors) before, immediately after, and a year after the pandemic. We examine how gender intersects with education and age in affecting employment status transitions and the extent to which COVID-19 deepened gender, educational, and age inequalities. In the short term, the pandemic impacted the labor market position of men and women similarly. Partly because of the labor market policies of Argentina, the pandemic idled both men and women, particularly those in the informal sector but also the self-employed. However, after the pandemic, men regained their pre-pandemic status while women remained (or became) inactive. Within genders, labor market recovery varied with education and age. Young and less educated women were more exposed to the immediate and longer-term negative effects in a manner not observed among men. The pandemic accentuated not only gender inequalities in the labor market but also socioeconomic inequalities among women.

This paper examines to analyze the best world experiences for ensuring gender equality in remuneration and adaptation to the conditions of Kazakhstan. A literature review has shown that types of discrimination directly affect how women are represented in the labor market and explain why their career growth is slower than that of men. In the paper, it was decided to use a quantitative method by a detailed analysis of labor force surveys in countries such as Iceland, Finland, Norway, New Zealand, Sweden, Rwanda and Nicaragua for the period from 2010 to 2021. It draws upon the nation’s experience in its transition to a market-based economy and its impact on gender equality in the labor market. It further examines the challenges and opportunities that Kazakhstan has faced in its efforts to reduce gender inequality in the labor market, particularly with respect to wages, access to employment and labor regulations. The paper concludes by suggesting a set of interventions that Kazakhstan can pursue to reduce gender inequality in the labor market further and promote economic growth.