Quod licet Iovi : hedges in US politicians' press conference speeches

Drawing on literature about the different television coverage of male and female politicians and gender-specific leadership behavior, differences in the visibility of female and male politicians’ emotions on television can be assumed. These assumptions are particularly relevant when considering studies on the effects of politician’s emotional displays on voters’ assessments. In order to examine the prevalence of female and male politicians’ emotions, we conducted a visual media content analysis of about 1,000 video sequences based on a sample of 66 news broadcasts. Since this comprehensive sample includes video sequences of German politicians holding various positions within the political system, it enables us to draw generalizable conclusions on the televised emotionality of leading politicians. We find that female politicians’ emotions can be seen more frequently on television than male politicians’ emotions. Moreover, female politicians’ positive emotions are shown more frequently than those of male politicians.

This research examined how third party statements impact the evaluation of male and female politicians caught in a scandal (i.e., extramarital affair). Governor's sex was crossed with three types of support statements: third party supportive (TPS), third party non-supportive (TPNS), and governor self-supportive (GSS). In Experiment 1, a female politician was evaluated more positively than a male politician. The TPS and the GSS conditions were both evaluated more positively than the TPNS condition. Experiment 2's design was similar to Experiment 1's, except it involved multiple affairs. In Experiment 2, participants used the third party's statements as an information source and thus reduced their use of gender stereotypes in the TPS and TPNS conditions compared to the GSS condition. We also found that male respondents gave more negative evaluations of the female governor than female respondents. Implications for the gender stereotype and social influence literatures are discussed.

Parliamentary Dress

Language and gender are inextricably linked and have been the focus of extensive study in sociolinguistics studies. The language features between men and women use are different as women's speech appears to be weaker than men's in many ways. Famous Netflix series entitled Anne with an E provides a unique context for examining women's language features as it is set in the late 19th century and features a young female protagonist who navigates a patriarchal society. The researcher aims to examine the types and factors of women’s language features performed by the female main character in Anne with an E based on Lakoff’s theory. This research uses qualitative method. The primary data source is the utterances extracted from a transcribed first episode of season 1 of the series. The first finding showed that Anne Shirley used 226 women’s language features and all 10 types was found. The most used type was intensifier with 63 (27.87%) data acquired. She used it to emphasize her feelings, thoughts, and experiences, reflecting her expressive and emotive nature. Meanwhile Marilla Cuthbert used 99 women’s language features and 8 from 10 types was found. The most used type was lexical hedge or filler with 34 (34.34%) data acquired. As a responsible adult and caretaker character, she used it to soften assertions or to give herself time to formulate her thoughts. The second finding reveal that both Anne Shirley’s and Marilla Cuthbert’s use of women’s language features were influenced by physiological factors, psychological factors, and social (cultural and historical) factors. The analysis demonstrated that both of their language features in this series are deeply influenced by their backgrounds and characters. The use of women's language features in the series Anne with an E implies that gender differences in language are not only influenced by biological factors but also by psychological, social, and historical factors that shape how individuals communicate in a patriarchal society.

This research aims to identify the features of women's language used in Enola Holmes 2 Film based on Robin Lakoff’s theory (1973) and to analyse the functions of women's language that appears in Enola Holmes 2 Film based on Judy C. Pearson (1985). The method used in this research is the descriptive qualitative research method, which discusses and observes the data source. The data analysed were collected by transcribing the film Enola Holmes 2. In total, there are 70 data collected from the data source. The collected data were then classified based on 10 features of women's language proposed by Lakoff in 1973. The results of this study show that 8 (eight) features of women’s language appear in Enola Holmes 2. The dominant feature that appears in the data source is lexical hedges or filler with 30 data in total (43%). Others are classified as rising intonation on declaratives for 13 data (19%), 7 data of tag questions (10%), 7 data of emphatic stress (10%), 6 data of intensifiers (9%), 3 data of avoidance to strong swear words (4%), 2 data of super polite form (3%), and 2 data of empty adjectives (3%). Then, the functions of women’s language found in the data source are to express feeling as much as 34 data (49%), 12 data to start discussion (17%), 10 data to express uncertainty (14%), and 8 data to get respond (11%). The function of women’s language that is less used in the data source is to soften utterance, 6 data or 9%.

This study explores the factors influencing Chinese women's involvement in politics in Peninsular Malaysia, using qualitative interviews with ten participants selected via purposive sampling. Key informants include female political representatives, male politicians, academics and Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) activists. The research applies intersectionality theory to analyze how internal and external agents of political socialization and various challenges shape women's political engagement and culture. Internal socialization agents encompass education, economic status, family background, religion, ethnicity, and gender. External agents include Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), political parties, and community networks. The study identifies multiple challenges that Chinese women face, such as gender competition, cronyism, low political interest, time management conflicts, racial sentiments, sexist remarks, male dominance, competition from political opponents, and ideological barriers. These agents and challenges are intertwined and impact Chinese women's political culture, which, in turn, influences their empowerment in political, economic, and social spheres. The intersectionality framework reveals how overlapping social identities and systemic barriers shape their political experiences and efforts towards empowerment. This study provides insights into the complex dynamics affecting Chinese women's political participation and highlights the need for comprehensive strategies to enhance their roles in politics and broader societal contexts.

Women’s language and its features have been a subject of linguistic study for decades. This research explores the women's language features used by female characters in the 2020 movie "Mulan," directed by Niki Caro. Utilizing Robin Lakoff's (1975) framework of women's language features and Judy Pearson's (1985) theory on the functions of these features. The purposes of this study are to identify the specific women's language features in the Mulan movie and to examine the functions of women's language features. The study employs a descriptive qualitative method, analyzing the film's script and dialogues to extract relevant data. The results indicate that there are 8 women's language features which are hedges and fillers, intensifiers, tag questions, super polite forms, emphatic stress, empty adjectives, hypercorrect grammar and rising intonation on decralative. The functional analysis revealed 5 functions of women's language features which are expressing uncertainty, getting responses, softening utterances, initiating discussions, and expressing feelings and opinions. This study contributes to the understanding of women's language in contemporary media, highlighting how female characters in "Mulan" use specific linguistic features to navigate their interactions and express themselves

This study focuses on investigating whether male and female politicians have an equal opportunity to influence the media agenda through their strategic communication efforts during the 2020 U.S. primary elections. Exploratory in nature, this study is grounded in agenda-building theory. This research employs mixed-method content analysis to compare the campaign press releases and subsequent news coverage of three male and three female candidates from the U.S. primaries. The findings revealed that, while both female and male politicians’ messages significantly correlated with the news agenda across three levels of agenda-building, there was no significant difference by gender. However, issues framed as “masculine” were more strongly linked with the media agenda compared to “feminine” issues. This study contributes to communication research by exploring the current state of gender stereotypes in political media coverage, offering insights into the persistence of a ‘glass ceiling’ in strategic news coverage. Additionally, it contributes to agenda-building research by incorporating gender and the context of primary elections in the U.S. which are underrepresented in the literature, into the complex relationship between political campaign messages and news agendas.

The objective of this study were to describe the ways of Donald Trump and Hillary
 Clinton deliver speech in political field, to derive the characteristics of male and
 female’s poitical speech and to elaborate the reason of male and female politicians
 deliver their political speech. This researh conducted by applying descriptive qualitative
 research. The data of this study were 92 utterances of male politician and 51 utterances
 of female politician. Which were selected from male and female politicians’ presidential
 announcement speech in United States from year 2015. The findings showed that male
 and female politicians used both report and rapport talk in delivering their speech.
 Male mostly used report talk than rapport talk in show his self confidence and his
 status, and used rapport talk to gain relationship with other to gain support while
 female combine the both talk types in almost same amounts tend to imitate male
 speech behavior in order to defend her status and gain relationship with others. Male
 politician frequently show the characteristics of male communication, such as: status,
 independence, advice,information, and order in his way of delivering speech. While,
 female politician showed her support, intimacy, understanding, feeling, proposal in her
 speech. The reason why male politician used report talk whereas female politician
 used rapport talk is because male treats the language to give factual information, tease
 or thread other and show or keep his status and power, whereas female did it as a way
 to negotiate closeness and intimacy.

This study aims to examine the style of language that is often used by women. This study discusses the features of women’s language used by Lisa Blackpink in her interview on the Zach Sang Show YouTube channel entitled Lisa Talks Lalisa, Money, Blackpink, & More. Data of this study were analyzed using women’s language features theory by Lakoff (1975). The method used to analyze this research is a qualitative method with data taken from Lisa's interview with Zach Sang which have been transcribed. The results showed that Lisa used nine out of ten women’s language features proposed by Lakoff with a total of 167 data with the following details: 120 lexical hedges/fillers, 20 intensifiers, 5 rising intonations, 5 empty adjectives, 5 hypercorrect grammars, 4 emphatic stress, 4 avoidance of strong swear words, 3 super polite forms, and 1 question tag. Meanwhile, women's language feature that are not spoken by Lisa in her interview was precise color terms.

Reductionist explanations for gender differences in language use continue to occupy much research attention. However, such approaches cannot explain when or why people might change their gender-marked language use. This article reviews and critiques several of these approaches and tests an alternative from the perspective of self-categorization theory. Male-female dyads (N = 42) discussed a gender-neutral controversial issue under conditions of low or high gender salience. When a shared student identity was salient, males and females used tentative language with equal frequency; but when gender was salient, women used more tentative language than men and held the floor longer. Furthermore, women who used more tentative language were more influential with men, but only when student identity was salient. The article suggests that women's tentative language use is influential with men when it serves to unconsciously confirm men's wider, socialstructural advantages over women.

We identify women’s revealed preferences for legislative proposals to investigate substantive representation of women. We then examine whether female or male politicians in parliament are more responsive to revealed female preferences using data on 47,527 decisions made by all 777 Swiss parliamentarians between 1996 and 2022. Holding party and constituent preferences constant, our results show differences in the substantive representation of women between female and male politicians for legislative proposals related to social policies. For all policies unrelated to social issues, we find that female politicians are no more responsive to female preferences than male politicians. Heterogeneity analyses show that differences in the substantive representation of women by male and female politicians on social policy issues do not depend on the socialization of the politicians, or the underlying political incentives and constraints.

Democratic representation presumes that politicians know what the public wants. Ideally, politicians have accurate perceptions not only of which policies citizens prefer (positions), but also of which issues citizens prefer to be dealt with first (priorities). How accurate are elites’ perceptions of the public’s priorities? And, if elite estimations are incorrect, is there inequality in these perceptions? Using data from two surveys – one measuring citizens’ priorities and one gauging representatives’ perceptions thereof – in Belgium, Canada and Israel, this article shows that politicians’ perceptions of the extent to which citizens want them to undertake action on various issues are not entirely accurate. Importantly, politicians’ perceptions appear to be biased towards the preferences of the male, highly educated, and politically interested citizens. These key findings apply to all three countries under study. When it comes to gender specifically, it is found that female politicians’ estimations are no less skewed towards male preferences than male politicians’ estimations, which suggests the skew is not the consequence of bad descriptive representation but rather of certain segments of citizens being more politically active. All in all, the results show that inequality in representation might partly be driven by underlying perceptual inaccuracy. Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at: https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2021.1928830 .

The issue of the representation of women in politics has received increasing global attention in recent years. This article discusses the representation of female politicians in the Czech daily press, contrasted to that of male politicians. It uses corpus methods to investigate the extent to which the image of women in politics in Czech media is stereotypical. The study is based on adjectival collocations of two lexemes: politik ‘male politician’ and politicka ‘female politician.’ The research uses a subset of the SYN corpus, which contains texts published in six different editions of Czech daily newspapers from 1991 to 2014. Two case studies were carried out: one focuses on the positive and negative connotations of premodifiers collocating with the target lexemes to reveal the similarities and dissimilarities between male and female politicians; the other investigates the top 20 collocates for both lexemes with attention to tokens that capture the nature of prevailing discourse. This study brings new insight into this area in contrast to similar studies that highlight gender differences: the behavior of the adjectival collocates of the two target lexemes reveals a more complex picture of gender image. It shows similarities rather than differences between men and women in politics and projects a “non-stereotypical” image of female politicians. These attribute properties are more subtle than outright stereotypes. What is more, in some spheres women are represented as having potential, although they are also represented as already holding power.

This study aimed to identify the features of women's language used by the female characters of the Cruella movie. The types of women's language features were identified based on the theory proposed by Coates (2013). The data of this study were taken from the female characters’ speech in the movie through observation and documentation methods. Screenshot and note-taking techniques were also used in the process of collecting the data in order to maintain the detail and accuracy of the data. The collected data were classified into the category of women's language features and analysed descriptively using qualitative research methods. The research findings were presented in the form of conversation from the data chosen that presented above the analyzing description. The results of this study showed that the female characters used all types of women's language in the movie Cruella, including; minimal responses, questions, hedges, tag questions, swearing and taboo language, compliments, and commands and directives.