Qufu City and Confucian Architecture

Animal head applique is an important part of Chinese traditional door leaf. Started with the origin and evolution of animal head applique, this paper is to study its original practical functions in Shanxi. I propose some ideas to improve the traditional animal head applique and apply it on the modern doors, so that people can accept and understand this long-standing decoration method and it can be preserved as the cultural heritage. Thus, the significance of the traditional components is illustrated and further the irreplaceability of the animal head appliques is demonstrated. KEYWORD: animal head applique; architectural door decoration; decoration; inheritance International Conference on Social Science, Education Management and Sports Education (SSEMSE 2015) © 2015. The authors Published by Atlantis Press 129 margarya for the door. The knockers were used for closure, protection, decoration and exorcism.1 Figure 2. Relationship between Beast-face Vein and Animal Head Applique Formation Anyway, that is just a legend. According to researches by the scholars, the origin of the animalfaced ornament generally focuses on three points:  the animal-faced ornament is related to and inherits the beast-face veins on the bronze ware manufactured in the Shang Dynasty (1555 BC1059 BC) and the Zhou Dynasty (1059 BC-255 BC).  the animal-faced ornament is related to and inherits the beast-face veins on the jade articles manufactured in the Liangzhu Period (about 3300 BC-2250 BC).  the animal-faced ornament is related to the prehistoric statuary art. 2 EVOLUTION OF ANIMAL-FACED ORNAMENT After evolution of more than two thousand years, the early form of the animal-faced ornament took shape firstly in the Shang Dynasty in China, and appeared on the bronze ware at that time in the form of beast faces without knockers. However, there is no door decoration discovered. The animal-faced ornament was matured and developed in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring State Period, people no longer worshiped the totem of the animal-faced ornament, and the beast-face vein occurred and developed. Through evolution of the animal-faced ornament during the Qin Dynasty (221 BC-207 BC) and the Han Dynasty (202BC-220AD), the decoration of the door developed to be perfect, and the basic shape and structure of the decoration of the door were formed. Moreover, the animal-faced ornament began to appear on the stone portrait. Due to multi-element fusion of the animal-faced ornament during the Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties as well as influences of cultures of other nationalities such as the western region culture and the Buddhism culture, various forms of animal-faced ornaments were formed. The development of the animal-faced ornament achieved the highest point during the Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties. Especially in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the animal-faced ornament was gradually divorced from the meanings of original totem worship and feudal privilege symbol, and no longer was the privilege of the governor. It began popular in the vernacular dwellings and spread widely. 3 ANIMAL-FACED ORNAMENT FOR VERNACULAR DWELLINGS IN CENTRAL AND SOUTH REGIONS OF ANCIENT SHANXI PROVINCE Shanxi Province plays a special role in the civilization history of the Chinese nation, and is honored as “the treasury of the ancient Chinese architecture” as the ancient architectures exist all over the province with abundant aboveground and underground cultural relics. The vernacular dwellings in Shanxi Province have unique features, and even there is a saying that Shanxi Province in the north is as famous as south Anhui Province in the south. The vernacular dwellings in Shanxi Province are featured with courtyards and cave dwellings. Particularly, the courtyard culture formed in the end of the Ming Dynasty is particular about the decoration, and therefore, a unique culture of door decoration is also formed. Figure 3. Bat-like Ornament on Doors in Ding Village We drew a conclusion from investigation on part of the vernacular dwellings in the central and south regions of ancient Shanxi Province, and classified the animal-faced ornaments into the following categories in aspects of decorative patterns: 3.1 Bat-like knocker The bat-like knocker was widely used in Ding Village in Xiangfen County of Linfen City of Shanxi Province (Fig.3). The architectural complexes built in the Ming and Qing Dynasties are preserved well in Ding Village. There are plenty of animal-faced

28 August 2013. I travelled from Beijing to the Temple of Confucius (Kongmiao) in the historic town of Qufu, Shandong Province. Celebrated for being the hometown of Confucius, the town exudes a quiet charm, which contrasts sharply with the cacophonous hustle and bustle of Beijing. Seeking inspiration for my research on Confucian political thought, I quickly made my way to the Confucius Temple, which is known as China’s largest and oldest. The vast temple complex, together with the Cemetery of Confucius and the Kong Family Mansion, has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1994. Walking through the well-kept courtyards, I could not help but wonder if this was the same path trodden by those who had sought to desecrate the memory of Confucius here in 1966.1

Evaluation of risks to UNESCO World Heritage (WH) sites in Taxila, Pakistan using ground-based and satellite remote sensing techniques

This text is intended to analyze the theme of the understanding and discussion of the life and death of the adherents during the transition period of Ming and Qing Dynasties. For the adherents remained by the former Dynasty, the most realistic concerns might be their identity, which was the reason to understand and make decision on living style. Questioning about survival as ‘Who am I ?’ was just authentication for the identity of the adherents and also was being testified with their social and moral role in the atmosphere being ruled by an alien race. Therefore, discussion on the identity of private and adherents, survival style and the view of life and death in the period of dynastic transformation between Chinese and alien race, i.e., the change between Ming and Qing Dynasty, become an important issue. The dominant view of the life and death of the adherents in the period of change of Ming and Qing dynasty was the Righteousness of Kings and Ministers which attaches importance to monarch-subject relationship. The central idea is dying for the sake of honor as ‘downfall of the ruler and the downfall of the ministers.’ On the other hand, the phenomenon of adherents fleeing to Zen Buddhism is prevalent in the period of change of Qing and Ming Dynasty, which became one of major survival ways. With reference to ‘downfall of the ruler and the downfall of the ministers’, the adherents who selected to flee to Zen Buddhism became those ‘should die but not died’. Their survival was difficult to receive legal recognition socially. Then, such issues as that, is the Righteousness of Kings and Ministers could be the moral standards and absolute value which could determine the life and death and the living issues with the adherents, how the privates and adherents at the end of Ming dynasty understood the life and death, and how the value of death and living could be assessed, with what standards, and so on, would be subjected. With such understanding, this text will make an analysis on the view of life and death of the adherents in the period of change of Ming and Qing dynasty. The analysis will be made on the development of discussion of life and death, recognition whereof, and the meaning of the view of life and death, with the proposition as ‘Must die’, ‘Not must die and Confucian orthodoxy which were major arguments on life and death at the end of Ming dynasty, and with two axes as Death and Flee to Zen Buddhism set up. Through such analysis, that is to analyze the recognition and meaning on the life and death of the adherents facing the crisis of death, this text is desired to present a balanced understanding on the view of life and death in the period of change of Ming and Qing dynasty.

Exploration of the Relationship between Geographical Environment and Human Diseases in Ancient China

Historic cities all over the world are facing challenges on how to best preserve their architectural heritage. We need good examples to follow. This study explores the historic city of Pingyao in China’s Shanxi Province, and the Qiao Family Courtyard in Qiaojiapu Village of Qi County nearby. Pingyao is a representative of northern Chinese city planning and vernacular architecture during the Ming (1368‒1644) and Qing (1644‒1911) dynasties, and it became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997. Qiao Family Courtyard is famous not only because of its majestic architectural compound and exquisite craftsmanship, but also it embodies the unique style of Chinese residential architecture in the Qing dynasty. Zhang Yimou’s 1991 film “Raise the Red Lantern” was shot here. Hu Mei’s 2006 TV series “Qiao’s Grand Courtyard” based on the business history of the family have made the compound internationally acclaimed. From an architectural and urbanist perspective, this paper examines what has made Pingyao Historic City and the Qiao Family Courtyard resilient and responsible. The findings reveal, among other things that, Confucian ethics of honesty, trustworthiness, and righteousness were the backbone accounting for the robust success of Shanxi merchants who held deep-rooted cultural values, and who conducted their businesses accordingly.

This research explores the spatial distribution patterns of water engineering facilities along the Grand Canal during the Ming and Qing dynasties. It employs the entropy method to assess the social development status of prefectures during these periods and uses the Tobit model to examine the primary indicators influencing the distribution of water engineering facilities. The results show that the spatial distribution pattern of water engineering facilities was characterized by aggregation during the Ming and Qing dynasties. In contrast, the Qing dynasty’s distribution was more dispersed, with a shift in the construction focus of water engineering facilities towards the south. The spatial distribution pattern of water engineering facilities in the Ming Dynasty centered around the hotspot areas of Shuntian Prefecture, Yanzhou Prefecture, and Yangzhou Prefecture. During continuous improvements, these facilities exhibited a multi-point-regional aggregation phenomenon.The influence of commercial development indicator on the spatial distribution of water engineering facilities is positively correlated in both the Ming and Qing dynasties. However, the impacts of the indicator on different types of water engineering facilities vary between the two dynasties. During the Ming Dynasty, the indicators of transportation accessibility and cultural prosperity facilitated the construction of regional water engineering facilities, whereas in the Qing Dynasty, they significantly influenced several types of water engineering facilities. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, neither the agricultural development indicator nor the population size indicator significantly affected the distribution of water engineering facilities. However, there was a negative correlation between the population size indicator and the distribution of water distribution facilities in the Ming Dynasty. This study enhances the importance of environmental protection in historical societies and provides a valuable reference for other international studies of linear cultural and material heritage.

Human settlement and human–environment interactions during the historical period in Zhuanglang County, western Loess Plateau, China

The Little Ice Age (LIA) during the Ming and Qing dynasties was the most abnormal climate event in China for nearly 2,000 years. During this period, the climate was relatively cold and various natural disasters frequently took place. By locating and compiling related historical documents, we aimed to quantitatively and systematically analyze the spatial–temporal variations in the natural disasters in the ancient Huizhou region (hereinafter referred to as Huizhou region or Huizhou) during the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368–1911; all dates are in AD, unless otherwise mentioned). The results show that (1) flood and drought disasters, the major types of disasters in this area during the Ming and Qing dynasties, occurred 422 times, accounting for 79.6% of the natural disasters, (2) there was a significant correlation of occurrence frequency of flood plus drought disasters and the total natural disasters on a certain time scale. In addition to flood and drought disasters, other disasters (hailstorms, windstorms, frosts, and earthquakes) occurred more frequently in the Qing dynasty (1644–1911) than in the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). The occurrence frequency of natural disasters had a fluctuant variation pattern over time, with peaks emerging about once a century. The peaks of natural disasters were mainly concentrated at 1471–1490, 1571–1590, 1671–1690, 1751–1770, and 1851–1870, which is supported by the wavelet analysis, (3) the most frequent natural disasters took place in Wuyuan, followed by Jixi, Shexian, Xiuning, Qimen, and Yixian. More droughts occurred in Jixi and Yixian, while more floods occurred in Wuyuan, Shexian, and Qimen, more hailstorms occurred in Wuyuan and Jixi, more frost disasters occurred in Wuyuan, Jixi, and Qimen, and more earthquakes occurred in Wuyuan and Jixi. The occurrence frequency of wind disasters was not high in any of the counties, (4) flood and drought disasters in the Huizhou region exhibited obvious stage characteristics during the Ming and Qing dynasties, and they changed gradually from droughts to floods, among which the transition from slight drought to slight flooding was the most obvious during 1811–1911, and (5) overall, slight flooding and slight drought situations accounted for the largest percentage of drought and flood disasters in this area during the Ming and Qing dynasties. Among these, slight flooding mainly occurred in Shexian and Qimen; severe flooding mainly occurred in Wuyuan; slight drought mainly occurred in Yixian; and severe drought mainly occurred in Jixi.

In the field of the pictorial decoration of Chinese architecture, the decor of the period of the Ming and Qing dynasties is considered the most outstanding since, at that time, the technique was perfect, and the methods of decoration were rich in their diversity, which was not possible in previous eras. The polychrome painting of official buildings during the Ming and Qing dynasties’ reign is quite different from the Song dynasty’s polychrome painting. The transition from the Song dynasty’s polychrome painting to the Ming and Qing dynasties’ polychrome painting was completed during the Yuan dynasty’s reign. Due to the decrease of dougong in size in the Ming dynasty, polychrome painting began to be placed on beams. Xuanzi polychrome painting, which originated from painting beams under the Yuan dynasty, became the primary type. By the Qing dynasty, Hexi polychrome painting and Suzhou polychrome painting, which evolved from the folk polychrome painting of the Jiangnan region of the Ming dynasty, appeared. The Xuanzi type was one of the three main polychrome painting types in the Qing dynasty. It was fully developed compared to the Hexi type as it was used more widely. The article explains the development of the artistic features of the various decorative parts of Xuanzi polychrome painting during the Ming and Qing dynasties, the characteristics of each gradation, and the method of distinguishing it, as well as its place of application.

Since China's Warring States Period (403-221), successive dynasties have built great walls for various purposes. Among them, the Yan and Qin great walls were built to block the southward advance of the northern equestrian people, and this characteristic continues in the Han great walls. In this respect, the Great Wall of China is also a structure through which various Chinese dynasties marked their territory. It was also a border line, meaning that the inside of the Great Wall was the territory of the Chinese dynasty, and the outside was the territory of the northern equestrian people. Historically, the easternmost end of the Great Wall of China was Shanhaiguan, built during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). However, the Chinese National Museum now depicts the Great Wall as having reached near Pyongyang during the Qin and Han Dynasties. This was the logic of imperialist history first devised by Japanese colonial historian Inaba Iwagichi in 1910 as a peninsular view of history that sought to confine the power of Korean history to the Korean Peninsula. Inaba Iwagichi claimed in 『Treatise on the Eastern End of the Qin Great Wall and The Capital of Wangheom of Gojoson』 that the Qin Great Wall was connected to Suan of Hwanghae Province, present-day North Korea. In 1931, China's Wang Guo Liang accepted this theory of imperialist invasion in 『A History of the Chinese Great Wall』, slightly modifying it to say that the Qin Great Wall reached Pyongyang. Even after liberation, Korea's Kangdan History academia has been criticized for following the Japanese imperialist view of the history of invasion. Lee Byeong-do, who is considered to be the leader of the Korean Kangdan History academia, plagiarized the logic of Inaba Iwagichi in “Nakranggungo (樂浪郡考)” and claimed that the Qin’s Great Wall came down to Suan, Hwanghae Province of North Korea. Therefore, the claim that the eastern end of the Qin’s Great Wall, which is the logic of Japanese imperialism's invasion, reached all the way to the northern part of the Korean Peninsula is currently being accepted around the world. During the Ming Dynasty, the construction of Shanhaiguan, the easternmost mountain in history, was to prevent invasion by the Manchurians. The Qing Dynasty, founded by the Manchurian people, no longer built great walls. Not only the Qin general, but no Chinese general has ever entered the Korean Peninsula. The reason why the Qin Dynasty built the wall was to block the Huns and Gojoseon. The border between Jin and Gojoseon was near Galshi Mountain in present-day Hebei Province, and to the north of it are the remains of the Qin and Han Great Walls. There is evidence that says. The ancient Qin and Han generals could not climb this brown stone mountain. The eastern side of Galshi Mountain was the area of Gojoseon.

Sanqi is first recorded in the Compendium of Materia Medica(Ben Cao Gang Mu) in the Ming Dynasty. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Sanqi, as a precious Dao-di herb, was successively spread and introduced for cultivation. This study verified the germplasm resources, production areas, and spread of Sanqi in the Ming and Qing Dynasties by systematically reviewing the historical materials, such as materia medica works and local chronicles, and the modern distribution of production areas. In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the original plants of Sanqi included Panax notoginseng, P. japonicus, P. bipinnatifidus, P. zingiberensis, P. stipuleanatus, and Gynura japonica. Among them, the production area of P. notoginseng has changed. From 1578 to 1593, the main production areas of P. notoginseng were Nandan county, Hechi city in Guangxi Zhuang autonomous region and Guangnan county and Funing county, Wenshan prefecture in Yunnan province. From 1683 to 1755, the production areas of P. notoginseng additionally included Yizhou district, Tian'e county, and Huanjiang county in Hechi city, and Tianyang district and Tiandong county in Baise city, Xincheng county and Gongcheng county in Guangxi Zhuang autonomous region. From 1765 to 1892, the production areas additionally included Youjiang district, Debao county, Napo county, and Jingxi city in Baise city, and Tiandeng county in Guangxi Zhuang autonomous region, and Wenshan city, Malipo county, Yanshan county, Xichou county, and Maguan county in Wenshan prefecture, and Baoshan city, Dali prefecture, Lincang city, Honghe prefecture, Mangshi city, and Lushui city in Yunnan province. During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, Sanqi was introduced to Zhejiang province. During the Qianlong period of the Qing Dynasty, it was introduced to Fujian province. During the Daoguang period of the Qing Dynasty, it was introduced to Hunan province. By comprehensively reviewing the materia medica works, local chronicles, and novel historical materials, this study restores the development history of the Sanqi industry in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Historical data show that the introduction of Dao-di herbs should consider the biological characteristics of medicinal plants and avoid blind introduction.

Ever since the appearance of woodblock printing in Yangzhou during the Tang Dynasty, the development of Yangzhou woodcut prints has been rapid in Song, Yuan and Ming dynasties, which flourished in the Qing Dynasty. Compared with the previous dynasties, the printing industry of Yangzhou woodcut prints in the Qing Dynasty has more variety a larger scale. As people begin to attach more attention to the artistic value of Yangzhou woodcut prints, therefore this paper carried out an analysis and research on Yangzhou woodcut prints in the Qing Dynasty. Yangzhou has been an important cultural and economic town in Ming and Qing dynasties due to its location at the junction of canal and the Yangtze River. With continuous development of Yangzhou woodcut prints printing technology in the Qing Dynasty, Yangzhou woodcut prints also made a very outstanding achievement, forming a very important part of the history of ancient woodcut prints in China. Yangzhou woodblock printing was renowned throughout the country at that time, the current offset printing in Yangzhou has quite a lot of workshop printing, family printing and official printing copies, on account of its high artistic achievement, it also ranks top in the famous engraving books in our country. Yangzhou is one of the center cities of woodblock printing in Ming and Qing dynasties, also the only city reserving the full range of ancient China's woodblock printing technology. Currently, Yangzhou roughly has a collection of three hundred thousand ancient book copies of Ming and Qing dynasties, in which there are many exquisite woodcut prints. The earliest Yangzhou woodcut prints had a comparatively unique style and remaining quantity, with a relatively distinct artistic style and characteristics, which are possible to well reflect indigenous aesthetic taste.

In the late Ming Dynasty, a family of the Po, who was a Mongolian military officer, emerged in Xuanfu. At first, they served as “Yi Ding(Tatar Soliders)” in Jiubian(nine-frontier fortification system of the Ming Dynasty). Unlike the Mongolians who joined the Wei Suo system in the early Ming Dynasty, the Po family served as private armed servants of Ming Dynasty border defense generals. They not only serve as frontline soldiers for border defense generals, but also serve as Mongolian language translators for them. In short, they have a lot of effectiveness.At the same time, they were incorporated into the military status of the garrison in Xuanfu, and became officials in the camp step by step from the positions of garrison and guerrilla.Its members took part in a series of eastern expeditions and western wars in the late Ming Empire, such as the Imjin War, and participated in the battles of Jigsan and Ulsan to expel the Japanese army, while the father and son of Pou Tingxiang participated in the war between the Ming Dynasty and the Later Jin Dynasty and sacrificed their lives on the battlefield. After the change of Dynasties in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the members of the Po family chose to become officials in the Qing Dynasty for the sake of family interests, and tried to let the next generation continue to engage in the army and maintain their glory. However, due to the collapse of the former Ming Dynasty’s military officer system, the Qing Dynasty’s vigilance against the former Ming Dynasty’s generals, and the characteristics of the Qing Dynasty’s military system and military officer system itself, the Po family did not get the same position of power as the former Ming.In the end, like other generals on the Jiubian(nine-frontier), the former Ming generals, who were born as adherents, gradually withered away in the Qing Dynasty.

The Philosophy of the Mind teachings of Lu [Jiuyuan] and Wang [Yangming] represented a major school of thought in the neo-Confucianism of the Song and Ming dynasties. This school of thought can trace its sources and genealogy back to the notions of fulfill the mind, know nature, and know Heaven (jin xin, zhi xing, zhi tian) and All Things are possessed within myself (wanwu jie bei yu wuo) of Mencius in the pre-Qin period of Chinese philosophy, and was formed from these basic philosophical notions; further, it was a school of subjective idealism unique to Chinese philosophy. It had a significant impact on the enlightenment thought both in the period between the Ming and Qing dynasties and in the modern era. Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, and particularly in the last ten years, in the wake of the deepening of the studies on the scholarship of the Song and Ming periods on the part of people in our country, there has also been very great progress in the area of research of the Lu a...