Questioning techniques in a philosophical group-discussion scaffolding estonian preschoolers critical thinking and reasoning

Critical thinking skills, often referred to as higher-order cognitive skills, are considered important for the Religious Culture and Ethics Course due to gains such as pupils’ taking responsibility of their own learning, actively constructing knowledge, supporting the development of other high-level thinking skills such as reflective and creative thinking. As students’ critical and inquiring thinking skills increase, they can also develop a number of related skills, such as the ability to explain issues in more detail, evaluate learning topics in relation to their own lives, become aware of different perspectives on problem situations, and question the reliability of information resources. One of the effective approaches for pupils to acquire critical thinking, inquiry and questioning skills is the 'Philosophy for Children' approach, which was developed by Matthew Lipman in the early 1970s’ and has been applied in many countries, for different school subjects since then. The main aim of this approach is to develop students' thinking and reasoning skills through philosophical discussions in the classroom. The 'Philosophy for Children' model stands out as an effective approach in religious education by creating dialogic and collaborative teaching-learning environments, encouraging students to inquire and question, and developing critical and reflective thinking skills. In our country, Religious Culture and Ethics Course curriculum, which highly considers inquiry and questioning in learning, aims to ensure that students learn by making sense of the content and using high-level thinking processes. Instead of a traditional, teacher-centred and rote religious education, it is aimed for students to become learner agents who inquire, question, strive to reach the source of knowledge, and actively construct knowledge. Therefore, Religious Culture and Ethics course requires teachers to use strategies, methods and techniques that enable students to develop and use high-level thinking processes. ‘Philosophy for Children’ approach has also been used in religious education in England and in Islamic religious as well as ethic courses in Malaysia. The studies undertaken in these countries have provided important contributions to students' active participation in the lessons, development of critical thinking and reasoning skills, self-confidence, self-esteem and social relations. This study is a literature review examining the theoretical foundations of the 'Philosophy for Children' approach, its application and evaluation processes, as well as its use in religious education by looking into both international and national literature. The aim of the study is to examine the 'Philosophy for Children' approach, which is thought to be useful in developing effective learning skills such as inquiry, questioning, problem solving and critical thinking related to concepts and problems of religion and morality in the primary and secondary Religious Culture and Ethics Course curriculum. Besides recommendations and implications are made for this course.

In this article, I discuss an Institutional Review Board-approved, community arts programme that was designed to enhance the critical thinking skills of ten urban elementary children by engaging them in enquiry-based art lessons. I conducted a single group, mixed methods study on a US campus through an undergraduate service-learning, honors course. Eight undergraduate honors students enrolled in the class. The interdisciplinary group of college students consisted of three art education students; a student from the sculpture department, one from social work, and three students from humanities and sciences. All of the undergraduate students had worked with children before and all had an interest in serving the community. To assess the children's critical thinking gains from the programme, I used qualitative observations and a quantitative critical thinking pre-test/post-test. The results of a t-test showed a statistically significant increase in the children's average critical thinking scores from the pre-tests to the post-tests (p.020).

To evaluate students critical thinking skills effectively, change in assessment practices is must. The assessment of a student's ability to think critically is a constant challenge, and yet there is considerable debate on the best assessment method. There is evidence that the intrinsic nature of open and closed-ended response questions is to measure separate cognitive abilities. To assess critical thinking ability of medical students by using multi-response format of assessment. A cross-sectional study was conducted on a group of 159 undergraduate third-year medical students. All the participants completed the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (CCTST) consisting of 34 multiple-choice questions to measure general critical thinking skills and a researcher-developed test that combines open and closed-ended questions. A researcher-developed 48-question exam, consisting of 8 short-answers and 5 essay questions, 19 Multiple-Choice Questions (MCQ), and 16 True-False (TF) questions, was used to measure critical thinking skills. Correlation analyses were performed using Pearson's coefficient to explore the association between the total scores of tests and subtests. One hundred and fifty-nine students participated in this study. The sample comprised 81 females (51%) and 78 males (49%) with an age range of 20±2.8 years (mean 21.2 years). The response rate was 64.1%. A significant positive correlation was found between types of questions and critical thinking scores, of which the correlations of MCQ (r=0.82) and essay questions (r=0.77) were strongest. The significant positive correlations between multi-response format test and CCTST's subscales were seen in analysis, evaluation, inference and inductive reasoning. Unlike CCTST subscales, multi-response format test have weak correlation with CCTST total score (r=0.45, p=0.06). This study highlights the importance of considering multi-response format test in the assessment of critical thinking abilities of medical students by using both open and closed-ended response questions.

Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui profil Kemampuan Berpikir kritis Anak. Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian deskriptif kualitatif. Subjek yang di teliti adalah anak usia dini dengan bebrapa tahapan yakni menelaah seluruh data yang tersedia dari berbagai sumber, yaitu dari hasil pemecahan masalah tertulis, wawancara, dan pengamatan yang sudah dituliskan dalam catatan lapangan, melakukan reduksi data, menyusun dalam satuan- satuan yang selanjutnya dikategorisasikan, mengadakan pemeriksaan keabsahan data, analisis hal-hal yang menarik, dan penafsiran data atau kesimpulan. Hasil analisis yang diperoleh bahwa kemampuan berpikir kritis ada pada semua orang, akan tetapi tidak muncul secara sendiri, perlu usaha untuk mengembangkannya, salah satunya adalah dengan kemampuan dasar guru, yaitu keterampilan serta kemahiran dalam mendesaian pertanyaan yang dapat menumbuhkan kemampuan berpikir kritis anak. Hal ini terlihat dari aspek-aspek untuk mengukur berpikir kritis anak dalam pembelajaran berupa aspek Mengamati dan menarik kesimpulan, Membandingkan dua objek yang berbeda, Kemampuan bertanya dan mengemukakan pendapat, Mendiskusikan dan menganalisa cerita, Kerjasama dalam permainan. Dapat disimpulkan bahwa perkembangan kemampuan berpikir kritis pada anak adalah proses yang berlangsung sepanjang waktu. Pendidik dan orang tua dapat membantu anak mengembangkan keterampilan ini melalui berbagai aktivitas, seperti diskusi, memberikan tantangan intelektual, dan memberikan umpan balik yang konstruktif. Profile of Children's Critical Thinking Skills Abstract This research aims to determine the profile of children's critical thinking abilities. This research is a qualitative descriptive study. The subjects studied were early childhood with several stages, namely reviewing all available data from various sources, namely from the results of written problem solving, interviews and observations that had been written in field notes, carrying out data reduction, arranging them in subsequent units. categorizing, checking the validity of the data, analyzing interesting things, and interpreting the data or conclusions. The results of the analysis show that the ability to think critically is present in everyone, but it does not appear alone, efforts are needed to develop it, one of which is the basic abilities of teachers, namely skills and proficiency in designing questions that can foster children's critical thinking abilities. This can be seen from the aspects to measure children's critical thinking in learning in the form of observing and drawing conclusions, comparing two different objects, ability to ask questions and express opinions, discussing and analyzing stories, collaboration in games. It can be concluded that the development of critical thinking skills in children is a process that takes place over time. Educators and parents can help children develop these skills through various activities, such as discussions, providing intellectual challenges, and providing constructive feedback.

The present study was conducted with the aim of examining the impact of parental role modeling and harmonization on children's critical thinking skills, within the statistical population of families with elementary school children in Tehran. This research was carried out using a survey method, and a sample of 726 families was selected through multistage cluster random sampling. Data collection was conducted in schools across 11 districts of Tehran. To measure the variables, a researcher-made questionnaire with acceptable validity and reliability was utilized. The data were analyzed using confirmatory factor analysis, partial correlation coefficients, and multivariate regression with SPSS version 24. The results, based on beta coefficients, indicated that children’s critical thinking was influenced by the variable of parental role modeling with a coefficient of 0.326 and by parental harmonization with a coefficient of 0.209. Additionally, 21.2% of the variance in children's critical thinking was explained by the variables of parental role modeling and harmonization (Adj. R² = .212). The relationships among the variables were statistically significant (Sig. = .000). Accordingly, parents can significantly contribute to the development of their children's personalities as rational, open-minded individuals capable of making choices and decisions based on critical thinking, by enhancing their own personality traits and engaging in logical interactions with each other.

The low critical thinking ability of students is indicated by the results of the odd semester summative assessment, which shows that conventional learning media has not been effective in developing students' critical thinking skills. To overcome this problem, learning media is needed that makes students active in the learning process in order to improve students' thinking skills. One of the learning methods that actively involves students in the learning process is the monopoly game learning media. This research seeks to develop students critical thinking skills through the integration of monopoly game media in the learning process. The study was conducted at SMK Negeri 3 Padang with the research subjects of class XI Accounting students. This research is a quantitative research with a quasi-experimental research type (quasi-experimental design) with a Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design. The research sample was selected using purposive sampling. The research instrument used was HOTS-based learning outcome test questions. The hypothesis in this study was examined through a paired sample t-test. Based on the analysis of post-test data from both the experimental and control groups at a 5% sig. level, the obtained Sig. (2-tailed) value was 0.000, which is less than 0.05. Therefore, the null hypothesis (H₀) is rejected and the alternative hypothesis (Hₐ) is accepted. The increase can be seen from the average Pre-Test score and the average Post-Test score in the experimental group increasing from 55.00 to 80.00. While in the control group it decreased from 60.00 to 58.00 (p <0.05). Based on the t-test testing criteria, it can be concluded that there is an influence of monopoly game learning media on students' critical thinking skills in accounting. This shows that the application of monopoly game learning media significantly improves students' critical thinking skills compared to conventional learning media. Thus, it can be concluded that monopoly game-based learning media is effective in optimizing students' high-level thinking skills.

The low ability of children's critical thinking is caused by various things, one of which is the limitations of educators in providing space for students to stimulate necessary thinking skills in the learning process. The learning approach, methods, and media have yet to help children fully build critical thinking skills. Overcoming these problems is one way that can support the achievement of children's necessary thinking skills with the STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Art, and Mathematics) learning model. This research method uses classroom action research methods to improve and increase the quality of learning regarding critical thinking skills. Based on the study results, there was an increase in all indicators of critical thinking in the development of student learning outcomes after being given action. The ability to think critically in children is evidenced by the average achievement category of Very Developed Children (BSB), with a percentage of in cycle one of 48.75% and in cycle two reaching 80.25%. The application of STEAM learning can improve critical thinking skills.

This research is the tendency of students who only received learning material sourced from teachers through lectures, so that students are less active in the learning process more towards teacher centered. Because during the learning process in the classroom only emphasize knowledge of low-level thinking, students should be able to develop the ability of critical thinking and argumentation skills of students during the learning process so that it will get used to argue and higher level thinking. This study aimed to analyze the implementation of PBL models to improve the ability of critical thinking and argumentation skills as well as to determine the relationship between the ability of critical thinking skills and argumentation skills. The method used Nonequivalent Control Group Design. The population in this study is the class X.1 and X.2 Senior High School PGRI 1 Majalengka in 2015/2016 school year and totaling 47 students. Sampling was done by using cluster random sampling, were divided into 2 groups: PBL model class with 24 students and other class are not using PBL as many as 23 students. Instruments in this research is the description of critical thinking skills and argumentation skills test, observation sheets and questionnaires for students. Hypothesis test using parametric statistical tests in this case to test the hypothesis of implementation PBL models to enhance the critical thinking skills using Manova test was obtained p <0.05 is 0.01 <0.05, which means there is an increased implementation of the PBL model of critical thinking skills of students and hypothesis test of� implementation PBL model to enhance argumentation skills of was obtained p <0.05 is 0.03 <0.05, which means there is an increased implementation of the PBL model of argumentation skills of the students, as well as the correlation coefficient to determine the relationship of critical thinking skills and the skills of argumentation studied through the PBL model obtained p <0.05 is 0.049, which means there is an interaction between critical thinking skills and argumentation skillsKeywords: PBL Model; Critical Thinking Skills; Argument Skills

THE DEBATE DEFINING THINKING, critical thinking, and higher-level thinking is expan sive. Geersteen (2003) provides an excellent review of this literature and suggests that one way to distinguish between lowerand higher-level thinking is based on the level of abstraction. In this article, we focus on analysis and synthesis or integration-that is, identifying parts and putting these parts together to form a coherent whole. We offer a simple heuristic device, the evidence ma trix, that helps students recognize the rela tionship between sources of evidence. Although analysis and synthesis are broad intellectual skills that transcend disciplinary boundaries, Grauerholz and Bouma-Holtrop (2003) and Geersteen (2003) argue that dif ferent types of higher-level thinking are more likely to be emphasized by some disci plines than others. Grauerholz and Bouma Holtrop (2003) conclude that there are two general types of higher-level thinking re quired by sociologists, conceptualizing and contextualizing. Contextualizing is most similar to C. Wright Mills's sociological imagination and emphasizes placing specific examples within larger contexts. Conceptu alizing involves the process of breaking concepts into their constituent parts, recog nizing commonalities and differences, and the ability to compare and contrast the com ponents of an argument. The evidence ma trix is a tool that is most helpful in develop ing conceptualizing skills. While the heuris tic device we suggest does tap broad cogni tive skills, these are a subset of skills that are especially relevant for sociologists. Analyzing evidence and recognizing the similarities and dissimilarities between sources is an example of a skill Geertsen (2003) calls referential thinking and Grauer holz and Bouma-Holtrop (2003) include as a part of sociological critical thinking. The evidence matrix is designed to foster critical sociological thinking by helping students integrate data and research findings from different modes of research and synthesize findings across multiple contexts. Using the evidence matrix helps students see the rela tionship among different sources of data and how to organize a more general argument around specific instances of evidence. Finding, reading, and evaluating the va lidity of research studies and synthesizing information from a variety of sources is sometimes referred to as information liter acy (Association of College and Research Libraries 2006; Grafstein 2002). Grafstein (2002:) explains, however, that instructors teach IL [information literacy] skills that are embedded within the research para digms and procedures of their disciplines (p. 202). Therefore, in this paper we con ceptualize certain information literacy skills, particularly synthesizing research evidence from multiple sources, as a component of sociological critical thinking more gener ally. *Please direct all correspondence to Maxine Atkinson, Department of Sociology and Anthro pology, North Carolina State University, Box 8107, Raleigh, NC 27695-8107; e-mail: Maxine_Atkinson@ncsu. edu. Editor's note: The reviewers were, in alpha betical order, Jill Bouma, Theodore D. Fuller, Kathy Rowell, and Stephen Sweet.

Critical thought has been taught to students in varying degrees over the years, but employers believethat critical thinking skills are still lacking in employees (Braun 2004). Some of the barriers betweenemployer expectations and academia concerning critical thought arise from a lack of congruityregarding the meaning of critical thought. However, nearly all researchers agree teaching criticalthinking skills is a desirable aim of education (Hemming, 2000). According to Cheung (2002), criticalthinking covers four dimensions: (1) cognitive, (2) motivational, (3) ideological, and (4) behavioral.However, other definitions of critical thought range from critical thinking originating from the lefthemisphere of the brain to critical thinking involving higher level thought (University of Phoenix 2007).Cognitive theorists also believe logic skills are not attainable until age six or seven (University ofPhoenix 2007). Piaget (2007) stated cognitive development theory is comprised of four stages: (1)sensorimotor stage, (2) pre-operational stage, (3) concrete operational stage, and (4) formaloperations stage. According to Piaget (2007), higher level thinking is attained at level four; however,according to Riegel (2007), higher level thinking is not attainable at stage four, and he has "postulateda fifth stage called Dialectical Reasoning" (para. 10-11). Critical thinking skills are critical for analyticsdue to the increasing amount of information dispersed to individuals and analyzing the credibility of thedata. According to Lunney (2003), individuals have difficulty analyzing data, because critical thinkingabilities vary from high to low; however, Lunney (2003) believes critical thinking skills can be learnedthrough further education. The following further analyzes critical thinking definitions as critical thinkingrelates to education and how the analysis of critical thinking relates to thinking critically and furtherdeveloping metacognitive awareness.

We argue that the literature on critical thinking in sociology has conflated two different skill sets: critical sociological thinking and higher-level thinking. To begin to examine how sociologists weigh and cultivate these skill sets, we interviewed 20 sociology instructors and conducted a content analysis of 26 assignments. We found that while multiple interviewees considered critical thinking to be too obvious a goal to warrant discussion, it did emerge as a criterion for evaluating assignments. In addition, we created a spectrum of writing tasks and found that only a minority of assignments (5 of 26) could be classified as eliciting higher-level thinking. These were found exclusively in advanced courses, where they were still outnumbered by assignments eliciting lower-level thinking by nearly 2 to 1.

The purpose of this chapter was to investigate pre-service teachers' noticing of children's critical thinking and views towards eliciting and using students' critical thinking in mathematics teaching. A mixed method study was used to provide a range of perspectives on pre-service teachers' views towards mathematics. The results indicated that the pre-service teachers initially held beliefs that mathematics teaching and learning consist of transferring information and students absorbing and memorizing information. The pre-service teachers based their instructional responses on experiences they had as students in elementary mathematics classrooms. The pre-service teachers described what they had observed about teaching mathematics as the ideal without regard for how the teaching behaviors they observed might influence children's critical thinking about mathematics. After completing a mathematics methods course, the pre-service teachers held beliefs more consistent with a reform-oriented classroom and demonstrated growth in their ability to notice children's mathematics thinking.

In wordless book the text is absent and the weight of the narrative has only the images (Arizpe, 2013. Gibson, 2016). In the classroom, wordless books can be used by small groups of students or individual students, who are encouraged to make suggestions about the content of each picture in the book. It is a complex process that requires the development of children's critical thinking and consequently the activation of a number of cognitive skills, such as processing and analysis, formulation of assumptions, reasoning, conclusion and evaluation (APA, 1990. Facione, 1990, 1992, 1994, 2007. Facione, Facione & Giancarlo, 1997, 2000. Facione, Giancarlo, Facione, & Gainen, 1995. Wason-Ellam, 1989). This article suggests ways teacher educators use wordless books in order to develop First Grade students’ critical thinking skills and expand their vocabulary. Key words: wordless book, critical thinking, vocabulary

Learning that provides space for children to be able to solve problems and make decisions independently is one of the learning strategies that can be used to improve children's critical thinking skills. The STEAM method is a reform in the world of education that combines science, mathematics in order to have a logical and rational mindset, so that children can understand phenomena critically and logically. The research was carried out by conducting direct observation in learning activities in the classroom. Then the results of the observations were corroborated by interviews conducted with school principals, class educators and students who directly played a role in the process of implementing the STEAM method with Loosepart. Data analysis in this research uses analysis which includes three stages, namely data reduction is the process of selecting, focusing on simplification, abstracting and transforming raw data that emerges from written records in the field. In stimulating children's critical thinking, educators provide opportunities to observe and explore the tools and materials in front of them with various senses. So that children are encouraged to be more curious about what they will do with various tools and materials. In this way, critical thinking in children can be stimulated so that children have the ability to ask questions and find out about information and observe and explore the tools and materials around them, they also have the ability to solve problems through play activities, and have the confidence to make decisions. in carrying out their activities. Highlights: Interdisciplinary Approach: STEAM method integrates science, technology, engineering, arts, and mathematics, fostering a holistic and logical mindset in children. Loose Parts Play: Utilizing loose parts in learning activities stimulates curiosity, encouraging children to explore and solve problems independently. Observation and Exploration: Educators play a crucial role in providing opportunities for children to observe, explore, ask questions, and make decisions, fostering critical thinking skills. Keywords: STEAM method, Loose parts, Critical thinking, Kindergarten

OPEN ACCESSJuly 7, 2011Questioning as a Tool in Teaching Ellen Tattelman, Arati Karnik, MD, Alice Fornari, EdD Ellen Tattelman Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University Google Scholar More articles by this author , Arati Karnik, MD Chestnut Hill Family Practice Google Scholar More articles by this author , Alice Fornari, EdD Hofstra North Shore-LIJ School of Medicine Google Scholar More articles by this author https://doi.org/10.15766/mep_2374-8265.8419 SectionsAbout ToolsDownload Citations ShareFacebookTwitterEmail AbstractThe literature has shown that the targeted use of questioning can help evolve critical thinking skills in the learner. Thus, we developed this teaching handout to demonstrate the use of questioning to nurture the learner into higher levels of intellectual thinking. It is intended as a faculty development resource for community-based clinical faculty. This handout can be used to introduce the questioning strategies by first introducing the modified Bloom's taxonomy. The second page illustrates a concrete clinical example of how questions can be posed to learners to escalate to higher levels of thinking. This handout was developed to be posted or readily available in precepting areas as an easy reference tool. As a complement to the handout, we have created an interactive PowerPoint presentation geared towards residents in a resident-as-teacher session or toward faculty in a more detailed, interactive faculty development session. During these presentations, the participants observe a precepting demonstration that uses the modified Bloom's taxonomy hierarchy of questioning. They then actively take part in developing questions at all levels and role-play a typical clinic precepting case to practice what has been introduced. The format of nonconfrontational questioning presented here along Bloom's hierarchy of learning levels is designed to stimulate critical and creative thinking while the learners build confidence as they formulate answers. Educational Objectives By using this resource, faculty should be able to: Discuss the concept of a hierarchy of questioning as a model of teaching and learning.Illustrate the use of questioning with a common clinical case.Recognize opportunities to use questioning in various teaching settings.Practice the use of questioning in a supportive, nonconfrontational manner. Sign up for the latest publications from MedEdPORTAL Add your email below FILES INCLUDEDReferencesRelatedDetails FILES INCLUDED Included in this publication: Questioning Instructor's Guide.doc Questioning Teaching Tips.doc Questioning Presentation.ppt Questioning Script for Demonstration Case.doc Questioning Role Play for Practice Case.doc Evaluation Card.doc To view all publication components, extract (i.e., unzip) them from the downloaded .zip file. Download editor’s noteThis publication may contain technology or a display format that is no longer in use. CitationTattelman E, Karnik A, Fornari A. Questioning as a Tool in Teaching. MedEdPORTAL. 2011;7:8419. https://doi.org/10.15766/mep_2374-8265.8419 Copyright & Permissions© 2011 Tattelman et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-No Derivatives license.KeywordsDecision MakingQuestioningCritical ThinkingPrecepting Disclosures None to report. Funding/Support None to report. Loading ...