Psychometric Properties of the GAD-7 for Assessing Anxiety Disorder Among Students and Populations in Developing Countries: A Systematic Review

The Critical Relationship Between Anxiety and Depression.

This report examines the impact of panic disorder and/or generalized anxiety disorder on quality of life and the implications of these findings on nosological categories. A total of 357 subjects with a current episode of panic disorder and/or generalized anxiety disorder were diagnosed according to DSM-III-R criteria, using structured clinical interviews, as part of a prospective, naturalistic, longitudinal, multicenter study of a clinical population with anxiety disorders. There was a high degree of coexistence of anxiety disorders and major depressive disorder. Subjects with generalized anxiety disorder almost universally had other disorders, were the most likely to have at least one other anxiety disorder or major depressive disorder at intake, had the earliest age at onset, and had the worst emotional health rating. Subjects with panic disorder without agoraphobia had the most likelihood of a history of alcohol abuse. Nine percent of the subjects had a history of suicide attempts or gestures. The subjects showed significant impairment in quality of life. The highly frequent coexistence of other anxiety disorders with generalized anxiety disorder and the overall lack of differences on many quality of life measures raise questions of nosology, particularly for generalized anxiety disorder.

BackgroundMental illness represents an important public health problem. Local-level data concerning mental illness in different populations (e.g., socio-demographics and residence – metropolitan/urban/rural) provides the evidence-base for public health authorities to plan, implement and evaluate control programs. This paper describes prevalence and covariates of psychiatric conditions in Georgia populations in three defined geographic areas.MethodsData came from the Georgia population-based random-digit-dialing study investigating unwellness and chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) in Georgia populations of three defined geographic areas (metropolitan, urban, and rural). Respondents were screened for symptoms of fatigue, sleep, cognition, and pain at household screening interviews, and a randomly selected sample completed detailed individual phone interviews. Based on the detailed phone interviews, we conducted one-day clinical evaluations of 292 detailed interview participants classified as unwell with a probable CFS (i.e. CFS-like; a functional somatic syndrome), 268 classified as other unwell, and 223 well (matched to CFS-like). Clinical evaluation included psychiatric classification by means of the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM (SCID). To derive prevalence estimates we used sample weighting to account for the complexity of the multistage sampling design. We used 2- and 3-way table analyses to examine socio-demographic and urbanicity specific associations and multiple logistic regression to calculate adjusted odds ratios.ResultsAnxiety and mood disorders were the most common psychiatric conditions. Nineteen percent of participants suffered a current anxiety disorder, 18% a mood disorder and 10% had two or more conditions. There was a significant linear trend in occurrence of anxiety or mood disorders from well to CFS-like. The most common anxiety disorders were post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (6.6%) and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) (5.8%). Logistic regression showed that lower education and female sex contributed significantly to risk for both PTSD and GAD. In addition, rural/urban residence and Hispanic ethnicity were associated with PTSD. We defined moderate to severe depression as Major Depressive Disorder or a Zung score >60 and logistic regression found lower education to be significantly associated but sex, age and urbanicity were not.ConclusionsOverall occurrence of anxiety and mood disorders in Georgia mirrored national findings. However, PTSD and GAD occurred at twice the published national rates (3.6 and 2.7%, respectively). State and local prevalence and associations with education, sex and urbanicity comprise important considerations for developing control programs. The increased prevalence of anxiety and mood disorders in people with a functional somatic syndrome (or CFS-like illness) is important for primary care providers, who should consider additional psychiatric screening or referral of individuals presenting with somatoform symptoms.

ImportanceAnxiety disorders have a lifetime prevalence of approximately 34% in the US, are often chronic, and significantly impair quality of life and functioning.ObservationsAnxiety disorders are characterized by symptoms that include worry, social and performance fears, unexpected and/or triggered panic attacks, anticipatory anxiety, and avoidance behaviors. Generalized anxiety disorder (6.2% lifetime prevalence), social anxiety disorder (13% lifetime prevalence), and panic disorder (5.2% lifetime prevalence) with or without agoraphobia are common anxiety disorders seen in primary care. Anxiety disorders are associated with physical symptoms, such as palpitations, shortness of breath, and dizziness. Brief screening measures applied in primary care, such as the Generalized Anxiety Disorder–7, can aid in diagnosis of anxiety disorders (sensitivity, 57.6% to 93.9%; specificity, 61% to 97%). Providing information about symptoms, diagnosis, and evidence-based treatments is a first step in helping patients with anxiety. First-line treatments include pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs, eg, sertraline) and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs, eg, venlafaxine extended release) remain first-line pharmacotherapy for generalized anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder, and panic disorder. Meta-analyses suggest that SSRIs and SNRIs are associated with small to medium effect sizes compared with placebo (eg, generalized anxiety disorder: standardized mean difference [SMD], −0.55 [95% CI, −0.64 to −0.46]; social anxiety disorder: SMD, −0.67 [95% CI, −0.76 to −0.58]; panic disorder: SMD, −0.30 [95% CI, −0.37 to −0.23]). Cognitive behavioral therapy is the psychotherapy with the most evidence of efficacy for anxiety disorders compared with psychological or pill placebo (eg, generalized anxiety disorder: Hedges g = 1.01 [large effect size] [95% CI, 0.44 to 1.57]; social anxiety disorder: Hedges g = 0.41 [small to medium effect] [95% CI, 0.25 to 0.57]; panic disorder: Hedges g = 0.39 [small to medium effect[ [95% CI, 0.12 to 0.65]), including in primary care. When selecting treatment, clinicians should consider patient preference, current and prior treatments, medical and psychiatric comorbid illnesses, age, sex, and reproductive planning, as well as cost and access to care.Conclusions and RelevanceAnxiety disorders affect approximately 34% of adults during their lifetime in the US and are associated with significant distress and impairment. First-line treatments for anxiety disorders include cognitive behavioral therapy, SSRIs such as sertraline, and SNRIs such as venlafaxine extended release.

Background: Nowadays, the attention to the combination of Substance Use Disorders (SUD) and anxiety disorders in women is increasing; therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of anxiety disorders in women substance users and epidemiological features of this population. Methods: In a cross-sectional study, 48 female outpatients with SUD referred to the Iran psychiatric hospital substance use clinic with a range of 18 to 65 years, were involved in the study. All participants referred to the substance use clinic of Iran psychiatric center to follow up on the comorbidities and psychiatric disorders, were involved in the study. The Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5 (SCID) was used to anxiety disorders and SUD diagnoses. The SCID is a semi-structured interview guide for making the major DSM-5 diagnoses. It is administered by a clinician who is familiar with the DSM-5 classification and diagnostic criteria. Finally, gathered data were analyzed by SPSS-22. Results: Totally, 48 patients enrolled to this study. The mean age of patients was 34.2±9.4. Crystal (60.4%) and alcohol (50%) were the most commonly used substances. Of the 48 substance users, 47.9% had at least one type of anxiety disorders. The most common anxiety disorders in substance users were generalized anxiety disorder (37.5%), social anxiety disorder (18.8%), and agoraphobia and panic disorder (12.5%). A statistically significant correlation was found between agoraphobia and opium (p=0.04), generalized anxiety disorders and benzodiazepines (p=0.02). Conclusion: In the present study, it was shown that anxiety disorders co-occur with SUD at a high rate. Generalized anxiety disorders and social anxiety disorder were the two most prevalent conditions among substance users. Analysis showed a statistically significant correlation between agoraphobia and opium, general anxiety disorders and benzodiazepines.

To determine the relations between obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) diagnosis, the likelihood of being diagnosed with a psychological condition, among obese veterans, after accounting for severity of obesity and the correlated nature of patients within facility. We hypothesized that (1) individuals with a diagnosis of OSA would be more likely to receive a diagnosis of a (a) mood disorder and (b) anxiety disorder, but not (c) substance use disorder. Cross-sectional retrospective database review of outpatient medical records between October 2009 and September 2010, conducted across all 140 Veterans Health Administration (VHA) facilities. The entire VA Health Care System. Population-based sample of veterans with obesity (N = 2,485,658). Physician- or psychologist-determined diagnosis of psychological conditions including mood, anxiety, and substance use disorders. Using generalized linear mixed modeling, after accounting for the correlated nature of patients within facility and the severity of obesity, individuals with a diagnosis of sleep apnea had increased odds of receiving a mood disorder diagnosis (OR = 1.85; CI = 1.71-1.72; p < 0.001), anxiety disorder diagnosis (OR = 1.82; CI = 1.77-1.84; p < 0.001), but not a diagnosis of substance use disorder. Among obese veterans within VA, OSA is associated with increased risk for having a mood and anxiety disorder, but not substance use disorder, with the strongest associations observed for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and major depressive disorder (MDD). In addition, this relation remained after accounting for severity of BMI.

High rates of comorbid anxiety disorders have been described in individuals with bipolar disorder. Although it is well recognized that anxiety disorders often co-occur with bipolar disorder, few studies have examined the impact of more than 1 anxiety disorder on long-term outcome in patients with bipolar disorder. The rates of DSM-IV generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, social phobia, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder were determined using structured clinical interviews in 138 patients with bipolar disorder who presented consecutively between 1994 and 1999. Patients were then followed for up to 3 years with longitudinal clinical surveillance. The impact of 1 or more comorbid anxiety disorders on mood symptoms and general function was evaluated. In our sample, 55.8% of the patients had at least 1 comorbid anxiety disorder, and 31.8% had 2 or more anxiety disorder diagnoses. The most common anxiety disorder was generalized anxiety disorder, followed by panic disorder. The presence of an anxiety disorder led to significantly (p <.05) worse outcome on global as well as specific illness measures, including illness severity, proportion of patients characterized as euthymic, and proportion of the year spent ill. Number of anxiety disorders was less important than type, with generalized anxiety disorder and social phobia having the most negative impact on outcome. Our data suggested that multiple anxiety disorder comorbidities were not infrequent in bipolar disorder and that generalized anxiety disorder and social phobia were more likely to be associated with poor outcome. We discuss some potential mechanisms and implications in our findings.

Controversy surrounds the diagnostic categorization of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). To examine the incidence, comorbidity, and risk patterns for anxiety and depressive disorders and to test whether developmental features of GAD more strongly support a view of this condition as a depressive as opposed to an anxiety disorder. Face-to-face, 10-year prospective longitudinal and family study with as many as 4 assessment waves. The DSM-IV Munich Composite International Diagnostic Interview was administered by clinically trained interviewers. Munich, Germany. A community sample of 3021 individuals aged 14 to 24 years at baseline and 21 to 34 years at last follow-up. Cumulative incidence of GAD, other anxiety disorders (specific phobias, social phobia, agoraphobia, and panic disorder), and depressive disorders (major depressive disorder, and dysthymia). Longitudinal associations between GAD and depressive disorders are not stronger than those between GAD and anxiety disorders or between other anxiety and depressive disorders. Survival analyses reveal that the factors associated with GAD overlap more strongly with those specific to anxiety disorders than those specific to depressive disorders. In addition, GAD differs from anxiety and depressive disorders with regard to family climate and personality profiles. Anxiety and depressive disorders appear to differ with regard to risk constellations and temporal longitudinal patterns, and GAD is a heterogeneous disorder that is, overall, more closely related to other anxiety disorders than to depressive disorders. More work is needed to elucidate the potentially unique aspects of pathways and mechanisms involved in the etiopathogenesis of GAD. Grouping GAD with depressive disorders, as suggested by cross-sectional features and diagnostic comorbidity patterns, minimizes the importance of longitudinal data on risk factors and symptom trajectories.

Late-Life Generalized Anxiety: The Constraint of Categorization

Questionnaires are widely used in routine clinical practice to assess treatment outcomes for children with anxiety disorders. This study was conducted to determine whether 2 widely used child and parent report questionnaires of child anxiety symptoms and interference (Spence Child Anxiety Scale [SCAS-C/P] and Child Anxiety Impact Scale [CAIS-C/P]) accurately identify recovery from common child anxiety disorder diagnoses as measured by a ‘gold-standard’ diagnostic interview. Three hundred thirty-seven children (7–12 years, 51% female) and their parents completed the ADIS-IV-C/P diagnostic interview and questionnaire measures (SCAS-C/P and CAIS-C/P) before (Time 1) and after (Time 2) treatment or wait-list. Time 2 parent reported interference (CAIS-P) was found to be a good predictor of absence of any diagnoses (area under the curve [AUC] = .81). In terms of specific diagnoses, Time 2 SCAS-C/P separation anxiety subscale (SCAS-C/P-SA) identified recovery from separation anxiety disorder well (SCAS-C-SA, AUC = .80; SCAS-P-SA, AUC = .82) as did the CAIS-P (AUC = .79). The CAIS-P also successfully identified recovery from social phobia (AUC = .78) and generalized anxiety disorder (AUC = .76). These AUC values were supported by moderate to good sensitivity (.70–.78) and specificity (.70–.73) at the best identified cut-off scores. None of the measures successfully identified recovery from specific phobia. The results suggest that questionnaire measures, particularly the CAIS-P, can be used to identify whether children have recovered from common anxiety disorders, with the exception of specific phobias. Cut-off scores have been identified that can guide the use of routine outcome measures in clinical practice.

Cross-sectional studies show a robust association between anxiety disorders and alcohol use disorders (comorbidity); however, this methodology does not allow for the testing of causal models. The authors attempted to overcome this limitation by examining comorbid relationships prospectively. Male and female college students were assessed as freshmen (year 1), and then again at years 4 and 7, for selected 12-month anxiety disorders (generalized anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, and social phobia or panic) diagnosed according to the National Institute of Mental Health Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS) and DSM-III and for 12-month DIS/DSM-III alcohol use disorders (alcohol dependence alone and alcohol abuse or dependence). Cross-sectionally, the odds of having either an anxiety disorder or an alcohol use disorder were two- to fivefold greater when the other condition was present. Prospectively, the odds of developing a new alcohol dependence diagnosis at year 7 increased from 3.5 to five times for those diagnosed with an anxiety disorder at years 1 or 4. Conversely, the odds of developing a new anxiety disorder at year 7 increased by about four times for those diagnosed with alcohol dependence at years 1 or 4. When alcohol abuse and dependence were combined, the pattern of findings was similar, albeit weaker. Multivariate path models provide similar results and highlight the reciprocal influence of alcohol use disorders and anxiety disorders. Alcohol use disorders (especially alcohol dependence) and anxiety disorders demonstrate a reciprocal causal relationship over time, with anxiety disorders leading to alcohol dependence and vice versa.

Use of Psychoactive Substances and Health Care in Response to Anxiety and Depressive Disorders

Diagnosis and Treatment of Depression and Anxiety in Rural and Nonrural Primary Care: National Survey Results

Anxiety disorders are highly prevalent disorders associated with substantial psychosocial impairment, but few studies have examined impairment within specific anxiety disorders. Furthermore, it is unclear how change in different types of anxiety has an impact on change in impairment, particularly given high rates of co-morbidity. The current study assessed the temporal associations of impairment and symptoms of three common anxiety disorders in a large, diagnostically heterogeneous clinical sample. Data were collected from 606 treatment-seeking individuals at an anxiety clinic, most of whom subsequently enrolled in cognitive-behavioral therapy. Symptoms of panic, social anxiety and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), as well as levels of impairment, were assessed three times over 2 years. In addition to examining levels of impairment across diagnostic groups, latent growth modeling was used to evaluate the longitudinal associations of anxiety symptoms and impairment. Those with a principal diagnosis of GAD reported higher levels of impairment in some domains at baseline; however, at follow-up assessments individuals with social anxiety disorder reported greater impairment than those with panic disorder. Anxiety symptoms and impairment both declined over time. Change in all three anxiety symptoms was closely associated with change in impairment, but only GAD remained a significant (positive) predictor of change in impairment after accounting for co-morbidity. Impairment and all three anxiety disorders were closely associated, both cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Because change in GAD was most specifically related to change in impairment, treatment for those with multiple anxiety disorders could focus on treating GAD symptoms first or treating transdiagnostic processes.

Annals for Educators - 7 July 2020.