Proto-Tibetic *mbras ‘1grain; 2rice’

We investigated the possible use of bog iron ores in late prehistoric and early historic times (c. 800 BCE–750 CE) from a landscape-archaeological perspective, using archaeology, soil science, hydrology and geochemistry, connecting data from raised bogs and adjacent dryland areas. Raised bogs were not hostile, but provided food and a place for ritual activities. Little is known, however, on the potential exploitation of iron ores in these landscapes. We compared bog iron ores in the raised bog of the Bourtangermoor (the Netherlands) with ores on the adjoining Drentian plateau, inhabited since prehistoric times as possible sources of iron. We compared bog iron ore mineralogy, its mode of deposition, and the ease of finding and excavating it to settlement locations and archaeological finds related to iron-working remains. Based on secondary evidence, we concluded that only bog iron ores on the Drentian plateau were used, but not the iron deposits associated with the raised bog.

The post ‐700 years BP depositionai history of the Holocene coastal dunebelt on northwestern Tauroa Peninsula involved an initial progradational phase, then a subsequent predominantly stable phase that began some time after 650 years BP, followed by a highly unstable phase from late prehistoric time to the present‐day Fossil landsnail faunas indicate that sandfield and prostrate shrubland have been the mam vegetation types on the dunefield since at least 700 years BP, but that taller shrubland established locally during the later part of the prehistoric period of dunefield stability Five species of landsnails became extinct on the dunefield in late prehistoric historic time, probably as a result of vegetation disturbance cause by widespread dune mobilisation and erosion

The onset of agricultural practices during the Neolithic Times brought about significant changes in the environment. Woodland clearance and subsequent farming facilitated soil erosion. Run off, caused by heavy rainfalls could erode the soils on the bare arable land. The accumulation sequences of these soil erosion events can be found on colluvial fans of gullies or in small sedimentary basins. These sedimentary records can be investigated using four dimensional landscape analysis. In Central Europe peaks of soil erosion due to human impact have been reconstructed for the Bronze Age, the Iron Age, late Medieval Times and Modern Times (Bork et al., 1998). The example of the Biesdorfer Kehlen in Brandenburg, Germany, shows that three main phases of land use induced gully erosion and hill slope erosion from prehistoric times until 1991 happened. From the Iron Age until early Medieval Times a stable period of three-thousand years with intensive soil formation indicates the absence of farming in the investigation area. These investigations, together with the quantification of landscape changes, can help to obtain better knowledge of past and possible future impacts of agriculture on the landscape. The data may also be used to validate soil erosion models and landscape evolution models.

Did ancestral Caddo peoples live and settle on the prairies of Central Texas in prehistoric times (i.e., before A.D. 1680)? Story had noted that there is little known about “the nature of the Caddo connections” in these sites, and she wondered what these settlements represented: “(1) groups from the east who occupied the area year round and/or seasonally; or (2) local groups who were interacting with Caddoans [sic] through trade, marriage, and visitations…?” In this article, I am concerned with the consideration of “Caddo connections” as expressed in the character of the ceramic assemblages from four sites in Central Texas that have been considered to have Caddo pottery and were occupied by Prairie Caddo peoples, Of particular importance are the stylistic (i.e., decorative methods and decorative elements) and technological (i.e., choice of temper inclusions) attributes of the sherds from the sites that are from utility ware and fine ware vessels. According to Shafer, the term “Prairie Caddo” refers to “Caddo groups [that] occupied portions of central Texas prairies in Late Prehistoric times,” from ca. A.D. 1000–1300.

Historical and archaeological evidence shows that ancient Hellenes had developed underground aqueducts since the prehistoric times. However, innovative methods of underground aqueducts were developed in Hellas mainly during the Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic, and Roman periods. Since the well-known tunnel at the island of Samos, Hellas, was designed and begun its construction (ca. 550 bc) by Eupalinos of Megara (the first civil engineer in history), several underground tunnels (with and without well-like vertical shafts) were implemented in the country. The goal of Eupalinos tunnel was to transfer water into the town from a spring. This tunnel, representing the peak of ancient hydraulic technology, was dug through limestone by two separate teams advancing in a straight line from both sides of the mountain. Delivering fresh water to growing populations has been an ongoing problem since ancient times. Several underground aqueduct paradigms (e.g. Peisistration in Athens, Polyrrhenia in Crete), some of which are in use even today, are presented and discussed. After late Roman times and the Adrianic aqueduct a gap of about 1,700 years in construction of such hydraulic works is noted. However, a remarkable development of tunneling in Hellas appeared during the last 50 years due to the ‘cosmogony’ of the construction of infrastructure projects using modern technology, e.g. Evinos-Mornos aqueduct with 15 tunnels of 71 km total length and the diversion tunnels in Sykia to the Thessaly plain and Messochora of the Acheloos River of 17.5 and 7.5 km length, respectively. Also, very recently three small conventional tunnels and one tunnel boring machine (TBM) were constructed in Aposelemis aqueducts used for water supply of Iraklion and Agios Nikolaos cities in Crete. As a consequence, significant design and construction experiences were gained. Overall, it seems that underground aqueducts of modern societies are not very different in principle from those during antiquity.

En gravhøj i Sevel sogn

First assessment of recent tectonics and paleoearthquakes along the Irtysh fault (eastern Kazakhstan)

To many of us the virtues of our day-to-day changeable weather are manifest. Seventy years of standardized meteorological records give us a good idea of the limits within which any day's events are likely to fall. In the southern English lowlands a fall of two feet of snow, a shade temperature of 970, or a month with 70 per cent. of the possible sunshine, represent extremes unlikely to be surpassed. Superimposed upon our day-to-day weather how? ever we now recognize that small but definite fluctuations of climate exist and that since about 1925 an appreciable amelioration has set in round the North Atlantic. Professor Ahlmann has recently reviewed the many associated events.1 It remains for us to consider the possible amplitude of the variation of our climate in Britain, as distinct from the weather. I shall first comment on the magnitude of the present fluctuation in Britain, in terms of overall mean temperature. I shall follow with some evidence for past fluctuations provided by the instrumental records since 1700, relating them to the earlier climatic recessions demanded by the pollenanalysts in historic and prehistoric time. In the second part of the paper I shall address myself more to those technical experts who are acquainted with the geological and botanical background, and I shall give estimates for the temperature of the various phases since the last Glacial maximum in order to compare the range of variation over which our climate appears at intervals to have changed. In my view it is high time such estimates of the mean tem? perature of summer and winter were made, and an opportunity of doing this for Late Glacial times is now provided by using Professor Ahlmann's relationships between the height of the snow-line, the amount of accumulated pre? cipitation and the mean temperature of the ablation season. Comparisons between present-day fluctuations and past changes may throw light on the possible causes of climatic variation; some will be led to consider whether the present amelioration in north-west Europe will con? tinue, and for how long. Throughout this paper I shall largely confine atten? tion to the mean temperature of January and July as a sufficient initial indication of winter and summer characteristics. Periods of disturbed weather when the oceanic influence is greater are characterized by a diminished January-July range; in quieter and more continental phases the range increases. Meteorological aspects of this varying vigour of the atmospheric are discussed by Angstrom * and Willett.3 1 H. W:son Ahlmann, The present climatic fluctuation, Geogr.J. 112 (1948) 165-95. 3 A. Angstrom, The change in the temperature climate in present time, Geogr. Ann. 21 (1939) 119. 3 H. C. Willett, Long-period fluctuations of the general circulation of the atmo? sphere, Journ. Met., 6, 1949, pp. 34-50; Solar-variability as a factor in the fluctua? tions of climate, Geogr. Ann. 31 (1949) 295. See also Q. J. R. Met. S., Centenary Proceedings, 1950.

‘Swastika’ is an equilateral hooked cross, it is one of the symbols that became popular to several nations of different cultures since prehistoric times. This symbol was associated, or rather, became symbol for some religious beliefs and spiritual concepts in some ancient civilizations. It has been extensively transmitted among several nations. Such prevalence proves the popularity that hooked cross ‘Swastika’ had attained, however, this caused the difficulty in determining its place of origin. Some historical studies suggested India as ‘Swastika’s’ homeland by the end of the Bronze Age, since it was predominantly a religious symbol of Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists. The spread of Buddhism religion which held the hooked cross ‘swastika’ as a holy symbol, led to the emergence of swastika in China and Japan as symbol of prosperity. However, others, due to some evidences, pointed out to Mesopotamia, land of the oldest known civilization on universe, which later became a cultural center extended from the Near East to Central Europe, and in Asia it had widespread and reached as far east as China. In addition, hooked cross had been contemporary to ancient Egyptian civilization. This had been assured by the discovery of a rock drawing in the western desert of Upper Egypt. In late historical times, precisely, the Byzantine empire, hooked cross was also in use. Furthermore, it was in use in the Coptic art as well. Hooked cross ‘Swastika’ continued to be used in ancient historical eras; contributed in their arts, and till the modern era. In addition, the widespread of ‘Swastika’ resulted in being associated with several terms; Gammadion cross or Crux Gammata, Hakenkreuz, Fylfot (fower foot), Wan in china, Manji in Japan, Tau cross, and Thor’s hammer. In addition, each society used Swastika in a distinct fashion; it sometimes symbolized the Sun, good fortune, fertility, religious beliefs, etc. Through this stretched history, hooked cross’s symbolism had radically changed, especially in the 1st half of the 20th century A.D, after being chosen as symbol for the blossoming Nazi party founded by Adolf Hitler in Germany. Since then, the ‘Swastika’ had been effectively detached from its past, Germanized and reinvented as a symbol of German purity and supremacy. This paper enclosed a briefed history of the hooked cross ‘Swastika’ since its emergence, with stating the diverse thoughts of its place of origin. This is succeeded by the symbolism of the hooked cross ‘Swastika’ and the changes happened lately. The final point is the outline of applying hooked cross ‘Swastika’ in Islamic Art, this is supplemented by some chosen Applied artefacts demonstrating this. This paper aims at:- Illuminating on one of the most unique symbols with differ meanings and argumentative as well. - Focusing on themes of association between different nations on vast areas since very ancient times.- Deducing the Islamic art’s tendency to admitting decorative elements of several cultures, if there is no conflict with Islamic faith.- Hinting that absolute facts or concepts are not exist, and symbols – such as ‘Swastika’ are liable to multiple changes.

The New Hope site (41FK107) is located on an alluvial terrace (330-340 ft. amsl) on the west side of the Big Cypress Creek valley, about 200m west of the channel at the time it was inundated by Lake Bob Sandlin. The site covers an estimated 2.5 acres.lt is about I km north of the confluence of Brushy Creek and Big Cypress Creek. In addition to what would have been the broad floodplain of Big Cypress Creek, there are gently sloping upland landforms (340-490 ft. amsl) to the northwest, west, and south of the site, and these landforms are dissected by several intermittent streams. Previous archaeological work at the New Hope site indicates that the landform on which it sits has been occupied on several different occasions in prehistoric times. This includes use during the Late Paleoindian, Late Archaic, Woodland, Early Caddo, Middle Caddo, and Late Caddo period times. The most extensive prehistoric use of the New Hope site appears to have taken place in Early and Middle Caddo period times (ca. A.D. 1000-1400); the 20-30 grave-sized looter holes and burials that have been reported to have eroded out along the shoreline at the site are evidence of Caddo cemetery use during this era. The ceramic assemblages from these components have been recently documented in a private collection, and are the subject of this article.

A survey of Saguaro National Monument, Arizona, in 1965 recovered new information about Hohokam villages, rock shelters, campsites, collection sites, sites with bedrock mortars, agricultural terraces, trails, watering spots, a quarry, and petroglyphs located at the east and west peripheries of the Tucson Basin. Sherds indicated rich cultural assemblages closely allied with the Tucson Basin cultural province, during late Colonial, Sedentary, and early Classic times. Some evidence suggested similarities between modern climate and that of late prehistoric times.

ABSTRACTThe “province” of Cibola and specifically the important center of Hawikuh was by the 16th century the focal point of both east-west and north-south trade routes and had a major role in linking the American Southwest with Mesoamerica. Southern influences into Cibola-Zuni can be traced for several hundred years before Spanish contact times. It is possible that in the late 15th and 16th centuries, pochteca-like groups, originally operating in the central Pueblo area, shifted their base of operations to the east and west peripheries of the region. However, the geographic position of Cibola-Zuni (like Pecos in the east) may have been the important factor in making Hawikuh and other Zuni towns important trade centers.

The weight of opinion in most works on early and medieval Ireland favours a Norman origin for the earliest substantial wave of urbanism in Ireland, prefaced by a small number of Viking settlements. Wheatley's ideas on nuclear urbanism, his ceremonial-centre-origin theory for the beginnings of urban form, taken together with Redfield's concept of the folk-urban continuum, provide a liberal conceptual framework within which Irish urban and proto-urban forms may be considered. Much of Western Europe in late pre-historic and early historic time, including some of the areas colonised by Celtic-speaking peoples, had protourban forms of settlement. The extent to which such features subsequently became important urban settlements varied, but the fact has certainly been recognised for Western Europe and for England. In pre-Norman Ireland the other forms of settlement which achieved widespread distribution were those resulting from the spread of Christianity, which began with the arrival of St Patrick, who is said to have landed in 432.

Craniometric data have been collected from published and unpublished reports of numerous authors on 961 male and 439 female crania from various sites in Subsaharan Africa spanning the last 100 ka. All data available in the literature, irrespective of their "racial" affinities, were used to cover the prehistoric and early historic times (up to 400 a BP). Samples covering the last 400 years do not include European colonists and consist of skeletons exavated at archeological sites, collected by early European travelers and derived from anatomical collections. Cranial capacity, depending on the mode of its calculation, has decreased by 95-165 cm3 among males and by 74-106 cm3 among females between the Late Stone Age (30-2 ka BP) and modern times (last 200 years). Values of the cranial index did not show any trend over time and their averages remained in the dolichocephalic category. The decrease in cranial capacity in Subsaharan Africa is similar to that previously found in Europe, West Asia, and North Africa, but, unlike the latter, it is not accompanied by brachycephalization. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

A detailed geoarchaeological study of the southern portion of the Sele river plain (Campania), and in particular of the area of Paestum which hosts the remnants of the famous Greek settlement Poseidonia, has been undertaken. Particular attention was paid to the reconstruction of the physical landscape at the moment when Poseidonia was founded, and to the environmental modifications which affected the vicinity of Paestum in historical times. Collected stratigraphic and archaeological data have allowed to reconstruct important landscape modifications related to the deposition of travertine by the Capodifiume stream in Holocene times. Archaeological data evidence that nearly all human activities were localised on travertine units whose deposition pre-dates the Greek settlement and which are represented, from north to south, by the Gaudo, Arcione, Paestum and Mancone units. Setting aside the Gaudo unit of pre-Holocene age and the Paestum unit which was also affected in Late Holocene times by further travertine deposition, yet to be investigated in detail, at least four distinct travertine units were deposited from the Middle Holocene onwards. These units are represented by the aforementioned Mancone and Arcione units (respectively of Middle Holocene and pre-Archaic age) and by the Spinazzo-Linora and Licinella units of Roman to sub-present age. Their distribution shows that, due to the deviations in the course of the Capodifiume stream, travertine deposition alternatively affected various zones located respectively north and south of the ancient city of Paestum, and the city itself, and significantly controlled man’s activities on the Paestum plain in prehistoric and historical times.