Proposal of an Identification Method for Over‐the‐Table Stroke Types in Table Tennis

To develop a simple, reliable, and sensitive test to measure stroke performance (ball speed and accuracy) in table tennis. Fifty-two players were divided into 3 groups in accordance with their level: expert (EG), advanced (AG), and inexperienced (IG). The test consisted of 45 forehand shots where players were asked to reach 3 targets. The test was performed 2 times (separated by 8 min) during the first session (n = 52) to assess intrasession reliability. A second session (n = 28), at least 3 d later, was performed to test intersession reliability. Both speed and accuracy of the ball were measured to evaluate the absolute sensitivity and reliability of the specific test. This study showed good reliability of the specific test for both ball speed and accuracy of EG and AG (ICC range .42-.96, CV range 2.0-9.0%). However, the reliability is low for IG. Ball speed and accuracy were greater in EG than in the other groups, and both variables were correlated with the level of the players. Results suggest that the specific test appears to be a simple and sensitive procedure to assess stroke performance in table tennis and that this test could be a relevant tool for coaches in table tennis.

ABSTRACTTable tennis is a racket sport characterised by an intermittent movement profile, including short rallies interspersed with short breaks. In contrast to other racket sports, information is lacking regarding the: (i) physiological responses during table tennis matches and training; and (ii) practical recommendations for enhancing aerobic and anaerobic performance in table tennis by improving cardio-metabolic and neuro-muscular fitness, anthropometry and nutritional strategies. Therefore, this review article attempts to narratively provide an overview of the physiology of table tennis by describing the metabolic mechanisms underlying match play and outlining a framework for practical recommendations for improving cardio-metabolic and neuro-muscular fitness, anthropometry as well as nutritional strategies. A second aim was to stimulate future research on table tennis and to point out study limitations in this context. In general, the most important finding is that the rally duration is short at around 3.5s, with a longer rest time of around 8–20s, resulting in an effort-rest ratio ranging from 0.15 to 0.22 in official matches and energetic demands during match relatively low. Future studies should focus on the relationship between energetic demand and table tennis performance with a view to predicting performance in table tennis using physiological parameters.

This study aims to explore the influence of environmental factors such as lighting, temperature, humidity, noise, and table surface type on performance in table tennis. A literature review method was used to analyze findings from various relevant studies in this field. The results of the review indicate that environmental factors play a significant role in affecting concentration, physical and mental performance, as well as players' game control in table tennis. Low lighting, extreme temperatures, high humidity, environmental noise, and table surface type are significant variables in influencing player performance. The implications of this research underscore the importance of understanding and adapting to environmental factors for table tennis players to enhance their performance and achievements in this sport. Further research is recommended to delve deeper into the interaction between environmental factors and performance in table tennis.

Background and Aims: This study aims to explore the impact of cognitive training on enhancing table tennis skills and cognitive abilities among primary school students. Table tennis is a sport that significantly impacts students' physical and mental development, requiring high levels of coordination, attention, and decision-making skills. However, the integration of cognitive training with sports activities, especially in primary school settings, remains underexplored. The objective is to develop and evaluate a cognitive training program tailored to improve both table tennis skills and cognitive functions such as reaction time, attention, and spatial awareness. The study hypothesizes that combining cognitive training with traditional table tennis training will lead to significant improvements in both areas compared to traditional training alone. Methodology: The study involved 30 primary school students from Xi'an, China, aged between 10 and 13 years, with an equal distribution of males and females. The sample was selected through a multi-step process: initial random sampling from five primary schools, followed by systematic sampling based on table tennis skill tests. The students were divided into two groups: an experimental group (n=15) that underwent an 8-week cognitive training program alongside regular table tennis practice, and a control group (n=15) that followed only the traditional table tennis training. The cognitive training program included activities such as reaction time training, graphic integration exercises, spatial rotation tasks, and psychological resilience training. Data were collected through pre-tests, mid-tests, and post-tests, assessing table tennis skills (forehand stroke, backhand stroke, and service) and cognitive abilities (reaction time, attention, and spatial awareness). Statistical analyses included mean and standard deviation calculations, independent t-tests, one-way ANOVA with repeated measures, and Bonferroni post hoc tests to evaluate the effectiveness of the training program. Results: The results indicated significant improvements in both table tennis skills and cognitive abilities within the experimental group compared to the control group. For table tennis skills, the experimental group showed substantial increases in forehand stroke scores from 76.27±3.21 to 97.73±1.03, backhand stroke scores from 70.27±1.10 to 95.80±1.82, and service scores from 39.80±1.21 to 58.80±1.82. Similarly, cognitive abilities such as simple reaction time decreased from 468.00±12.95 ms to 288.07±16.40 ms, and choice reaction time decreased from 413.07±3.61 ms to 281.13±9.30 ms. These improvements were statistically significant (p<0.05) compared to the control group, which showed only modest improvements. The findings suggest that the cognitive training program effectively enhanced both the physical and cognitive aspects of table tennis performance in primary school students. Conclusion: The study concludes that integrating cognitive training with traditional table tennis training significantly enhances both table tennis skills and cognitive abilities among primary school students. The cognitive training program, which included reaction time training, spatial awareness exercises, and psychological resilience training, proved effective in improving students' performance in table tennis. The results highlight the importance of incorporating cognitive training into sports education to optimize skill development and cognitive function. Future research should consider expanding the sample size, diversifying the age range, and conducting long-term follow-up studies to further validate these findings and explore the long-term effects of cognitive training on athletic performance.

Mental fatigue (MF) is a psychobiological state negatively impacting both cognitive and physical performance. Although recent research implies that some table tennis (TT) performance outcomes are impaired by MF, open skill sports such as TT require a more detailed overview of MF-related performance decrements. Moreover, research into MF and sport-specific psychomotor performance lacks the inclusion of brain-related measurements to identify MF mechanisms. Eleven experienced TT players participated in this randomized counterbalanced crossover trial. Participants were either required to perform an individualized Stroop task (MF condition) or watch a documentary (control condition). The primary outcomes were reaction time on a sport-specific visuomotor task and EEG activity throughout the trial. The subjective feeling of MF was significantly different between both conditions and confirmed that the MF condition induced the mentally fatigue state of participants (p < 0.001), though no behavioral indicators (i.e., decrease in performance on Stroop and flanker task) of MF. MF worsened reaction time on the visuomotor task, while other secondary measurements remained largely ambiguous. Spectral power (i.e., decreases in upper α band and θ band) was influenced by MF, while ERPs measured during the visuomotor task remained unaltered. The present study confirms that MF negatively impacts table tennis performance, specifically inhibitory stimuli during the visuomotor task. These findings also further augment our understanding of the effects of MF on human performance.

BackgroundThe holistic focus of attention due to promising motor learning and performance benefits constitutes an desired direction for scientific investigations in sports settings. However, the generalizability of its effect on various motor skills in table tennis requires further investigation. The study aimed to determine the impact of holistic focus of attention and proximal and distal external focus on the accuracy of the table tennis forehand stroke in low-skilled players.MethodsEighty undergraduate physical education students were randomly assigned one of four groups: focus on the ball (GPEF, n = 20), focus on targets marked on the tennis table (GDEF, n = 20), focus on feeling smooth and fluid when playing (GHF, n = 20), and control group was subjected to none of the experimental factors (CNTRL, n = 20). The participant’s task was to score as many points as possible by hitting the ball using the forehand technique in table tennis inside the three smallest targets marked on the tennis table. The data were analysed using one-way ANOVA and mixed-ANOVAs with repeated measures on the last factor. Post-hoc pairwise comparisons (Fisher LSD test) were conducted to estimate the statistical significance of the intra-differences between the results. Partial Eta squared and Cohen’s d were calculated to estimate effect size.ResultsThe highest improvement of score results was observed in the group with focus on feeling smooth and fluid when playing, while the lowest was observed in the group with focus on the ball both on the post-test and delayed retention test. Nevertheless, each group significantly improved their score results on the post-test and the delayed retention test, which indicates that holistic focus, proximal and distal external focus, had similar effects on the accuracy of the table tennis forehand stroke in low-skilled players.ConclusionsThe study found that holistic focus and proximal and distal external focus are equally effective in improving the accuracy of the table tennis forehand stroke for players with lower skill levels. We recommend that coaches and practitioners use holistic and external attentional focus cues to enhance motor skill performance in table tennis. For example, when teaching or improving the table tennis strokes, coaches can apply a holistic cue like “focus on smoothing out your wrist movement” or an external cue like “focus on the target area of the table”.

In table tennis, a 40 mm in diameter table tennis ball weighing 2.7g can reach the opponent's table in a very short time when it travels at a speed of 17m/s. That is difficult for new players to hit accurately. The purpose of this work is to recognize hits and misses by distinguishing the action difference between hitting and missing table tennis. The result of recognition can be used to figure out a small deviation from the correct posture and improve the hitting accuracy. Six volunteers participated in the experiment. The volunteers wore wristband sensors on the wrist on which they held the table tennis bat. Each volunteer played the ball 100 times and collected the information through a wristband sensor. The collected information was analyzed by support vector machine (SVM), decision tree (CART), linear discriminant analysis (LDA), K nearest neighbor (KNN), and Naive Bayes (NB) to identify the identities of volunteers and the hit or miss of the ball. The accuracy rate of volunteers' identity recognition is 99%, and the accuracy rate of hits and misses is 95%. The results show that the wristband sensor can accurately identify the volunteers' identities and missing cases through appropriate classification methods. This shows that we can find out the nuances between the stroke postures by hitting or missing the ball, and then use the results to correct the movement of the players, and thus improve the players' skill.

Mental fatigue impairs performance across several sports domains. However, a systematic review on its effects on racket sports performance has been lacking due to the previous scarcity of studies. This review aims to provide a comprehensive review the effects of mental fatigue on racket players’ performance, with a discussion of the underlying mechanisms. A thorough search was conducted across five databases, including Web of Science, PubMed, SCOPUS, SPORTDiscus (via EBSCOhost), and the Psychological and Behavioral Science Collection (via EBSCOhost). The PICOS framework established the inclusion criteria: (1) healthy racket sports players; (2) induction of mental fatigue in both field and laboratory settings; (3) comparison of mental fatigue interventions with a control group (e.g., watching a movie or reading a magazine); (4) assessment of performance outcomes, including physical performance, skilled performance, and perceptual-cognitive performance; and (5) randomized controlled trials (RCTs), non-randomized controlled trials (non-RCTs), and non-randomized non-controlled trials. Mental fatigue manipulation, subjective evaluation, and (neuro)physiological markers were synthesized to support the successful induction of mental fatigue. Performance was categorized into tennis, table tennis, badminton, and padel based on the characteristics of specific racket sports domains. Secondary outcomes, such as the rate perception of effort (RPE) and motivation, were synthesized to explain the mechanisms based on the prominent theory of the Psychobiological model of endurance performance. Six studies revealed that mental fatigue impacts stroke performance in table tennis, affecting speed, accuracy, faults, and only second-serve accuracy in tennis. The response time of psychomotor performance increased in table tennis, padel, and badminton. Meanwhile, mental fatigue increased the RPE and remained unchanged in heart rate, blood glucose, and lactate, consistent with the Psychobiological model of endurance performance. Additionally, attention is suggested as a significant underlying psychobiological factor.

Purpose This study aims to evaluate the role of core strength in enhancing forehand loop performance in table tennis, leveraging an AI-driven posture recognition system developed using the MediaPipe algorithm. Methods Sixty participants, including 30 elite players and 30 school-level players, performed 30 forehand loops against standardized backspin balls delivered by a table tennis robot under controlled conditions. Motion data was captured at a 45° angle behind the players. Hip and knee angles were analysed using thresholds of 90° and 110° to measure core engagement. The AI system provided real-time motion analysis and stored results for further statistical evaluation. Results Elite players showed significantly higher core engagement compared to school-level players, achieving greater frequencies of shots meeting the predefined hip angle threshold of 110° ( p &lt; 0.001) and knee angle threshold of 90° ( p = 0.004). The AI-driven posture recognition system demonstrated high accuracy in tracking motion and analysing biomechanics, effectively distinguishing skill levels. EP exhibited superior consistency and adaptability, with trends indicating improved technical efficiency across all performance metrics. These findings highlight the importance of core strength in enhancing forehand loop performance against backspin. Conclusion Core strength plays a pivotal role in optimizing forehand loop performance, particularly when countering backspin. This study highlights the potential of AI technologies, such as the MediaPipe-based system, to advance sports biomechanics and improve training methodologies in table tennis.

Identifying the trajectory and spin of the ball with speed and accuracy is critical for good performance in table tennis. The aim of this study was to analyze the ability of table tennis players presenting different levels of training/experience to identify the magnitude of the ball spin from the sound produced when the racket hit the ball. Four types of “forehand” contact sounds were collected in the laboratory, defined as: Fast Spin (spinning ball forward at 140 r/s); Medium Spin (105 r/s); Slow Spin (84 r/s); and Flat Hit (less than 60 r/s). Thirty-four table tennis players of both sexes (24 men and 10 women) aged 18-40 years listened to the sounds and tried to identify the magnitude of the ball spin. The results revealed that in 50.9% of the cases the table tennis players were able to identify the ball spin and the observed number of correct answers (10.2) was significantly higher (χ2 = 270.4, p <0.05) than the number of correct answers that could occur by chance. On the other hand, the results did not show any relationship between the level of training/experience and auditory perception of the ball spin. This indicates that auditory information contributes to identification of the magnitude of the ball spin, however, it also reveals that, in table tennis, the level of training does not interfere with the auditory perception of the ball spin.

QE is the final ocular fixation that precedes critical athletic movements and that enables athletes to gather relevant information and organize their subsequent movement. Although little is known about the factors sustaining performance in table tennis, to date there has been no investigation to assess QE as a contributor to table tennis performance. Furthermore, there is limited research regarding the influence on QE of factors that are known to impact performance, such as task complexity and fatigue. In a within-subjects experimental design, we manipulated fatigue (high vs low) and task complexity (high vs low). Eleven elite table tennis players (mage =14.72 years, mexperience = 7.27 years) underwent each of the four resulting conditions. Athletes made longer QE before hit versus missed shots (p <.001, η2p = .795) and QE and performance decreased under fatigue (p = 0.02, η2 p = .628; p = .002, η2 p = .62), but we did not detect a significant effect of complexity on QE (p = .352, η2 p = .087). This study is one of the first to show that QE sustains performance in a dynamic sport, that is table tennis, and that QE is affected by fatigue.

ABSTRACTTable tennis is a sport in which players perform technical actions at high speed. In this regard, response time (TTR), reaction time (RT) and movement time (MT) are key factors that can contribute to successful performance of table tennis players. The purposes of this study were to determine the magnitude of intra-subject and inter-subject variability in TTR based on player’s lateral dominance, to establish possible differences between sex, age group and ranking position for TTR, RT and MT, and to relate these results with table tennis performance by analysing the achieved position in the national ranking. A total of 116 Spanish national level players (71 males and 45 females) carried out the Take-Off Reaction Test in a table tennis court simulating real sport conditions. There were no intra-sex differences for the total sample when lateral dominance was checked. On the other hand, male players showed lower MT than females whereas female players showed significantly lower RT values than males. Moreover, and taken into account the correlation analysis, we can conclude that both lower RT and MT can be considered as key variables of performance in table tennis.

The ability of eye-hand coordination is needed in table tennis performance. Therefore, measuring the eye-hand coordination of table tennis performance is necessary. This study aimed to develop a measuring instrument for table tennis eye coordination and test its validity and reliability. This study uses mixed methods - data collection using the Delphi technique and test-retest. The participants were three academic experts, four table tennis professional experts, and fourteen table tennis athletes. This research instrument uses a questionnaire with a rating scale of one to four, namely very relevant, relevant, less relevant, and irrelevant. It uses a measuring instrument for hand-eye coordination. Data analysis used Aiken's formula, Intraclass Correlation Coefficients (ICC), and Cronbach Alpha. The results of this study that measuring eye-hand coordination of table tennis performance show the first aspect: the suitability of the coordination concept has a value of V = 0.952, the second aspect: the suitability of the number of stimuli has a value of V = 0.857, the third aspect: the suitability of distance has a value of V = 0.952, the fourth aspect: the suitability of the movement has a value of V = 0.857, the fifth aspect: the suitability of the test procedure has a value of V = 0.857. The Intraclass Correlation Coefficients (ICC) test has a value of 0.875. The reliability test has a value of 0.891. Based on these results, the eye-hand coordination measuring instrument has content validity and high reliability. Therefore, the eye-hand coordination measuring instrument can be used to measure table tennis performance.

Purpose: This study aimed to develop a stroke effectiveness test in table tennis based on the temporal game structure to assess the ball speed and ball placement of the players, with a purpose to analyze its reproducibility and validity.Methods: Nineteen male table tennis players participated in this study. The test was performed twice during the first session and once during the second session to assess the intrasession and intersession reproducibility, respectively. Moreover, the test was examined on its ability to discriminate between regional (n = 10) and local performance-level (n = 9) players and on the relationship between the test results and the table tennis performance to assess the discriminant and concurrent validity, respectively. In general, the test consisted of 11 simulated rallies of 2–5 balls with the effort and rest ratio of 0.5, and focused on attack with offensive strokes at defensive balls delivered by a robot randomly between the left and right positions on the table.Results: Ball speed, ball placement, and ball speed-ball placement index showed satisfactory reliability (ICC range 0.78–0.96, P < 0.05) and agreement (CV range 2.7–16.2%) outcomes. Additionally, the Bland–Altman plots show the systematic error of the analyses closer to 0, and that most values were within the limits of agreements. Concerning validity analyses, regional players had higher scores of ball placement (+51.3%; P = 0.01, ES = 1.33) and ball speed-ball placement index (+56.1%; P = 0.0009, ES = 1.87) as well as made fewer errors (-25.4%; P = 0.017, ES = 1.20) than local players. Moreover, ball placement (r = -0.79, P = 0.04), ball speed-ball placement index (r = -0.78, P = 0.04), and percentage error (r = 0.88, P = 0.01) presented a strong and significant correlation with table tennis performance. However, ball speed was slightly different between the regional than local players (+1.7%; P = 0.78, ES = 0.13) and this variable was not related to table tennis performance (r = 0.32, P = 0.49).Conclusion: Our findings show evidences that the test is reproducible. Moreover, discriminant and concurrent validity are confirmed for ball placement and ball speed-ball placement index.

Analysis of cardiopulmonary and metabolic variables measured during laboratory and sport-specific incremental tests for table tennis performance prediction