Abstract
BackgroundMalaria, HIV/AIDS, and tuberculosis endemic areas show considerable geographical overlap, leading to incidence of co-infections. This requires treatment with multiple drugs, potentially causing adverse drug–drug interactions (DDIs). As anti-malarials are generally positively charged at physiological pH, they are likely to interact with human organic cation transporters 1 and 2 (OCT1 and OCT2). These transporters are involved in the uptake of drugs into hepatocytes and proximal tubule cells for subsequent metabolic conversion or elimination. This efflux of cationic drugs from hepatocytes and proximal tubule cells into bile and urine can be mediated by multidrug and toxin extrusion 1 and 2-K (MATE1 and MATE2-K) transporters, respectively.MethodsHere, the interaction of anti-malarials with these transporters was studied in order to predict potential DDIs. Using baculovirus-transduced HEK293 cells transiently expressing human OCT1, OCT2, MATE1 and MATE2K uptake and inhibition was studied by a range of anti-malarials.ResultsAmodiaquine, proguanil, pyrimethamine and quinine were the most potent inhibitors of 4-(4-(dimethylamino)styryl)-N-methylpyridinium iodide (ASP) transport, a known substrate of OCT1/2, resulting in half maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC50) of 11, 13, 1.6, and 3.4 µM, respectively. Only quinine had a drug–drug index higher than the cut-off value of 0.1 for OCT2, therefore, in vivo pharmacokinetic studies focusing on DDIs involving this compound and other OCT2-interacting drugs are warranted. Furthermore, proguanil appeared to be a substrate of OCT1 and OCT2 with affinities of 8.1 and 9.0 µM, respectively. Additionally, MATE1 and MATE2-K were identified as putative transport proteins for proguanil. Finally, its metabolite cycloguanil was also identified as an OCT1, OCT2, MATE1 and MATE2-K substrate.ConclusionAnti-malarials can reduce OCT1 and OCT2 transport activity in vitro. Furthermore, proguanil and cycloguanil were found to be substrates of OCT1, OCT2, MATE1 and MATE2-K, highlighting the importance of these transporters in distribution and excretion. As these compounds shares substrate overlap with metformin DDIs can be anticipated during concurrent treatment.
Highlights
Malaria, HIV/AIDS, and tuberculosis endemic areas show considerable geographical overlap, leading to incidence of co-infections
Organic cation transporters (OCT) 1 and OCT2 are cellular uptake transporters belonging to the solute carrier (SLC) family, which are mainly expressed in liver and kidney [12] and within these organs localize to the basolateral membrane of hepatocyte and proximal tubule cells, respectively [13, 14]
These cells were used to study the inhibitory effect of eleven anti-malarials (AMO, ART, ATO, chloroquine diphosphate (CQ), DHA, LUM, mefloquine hydrochloride (MQ), primaquine diphosphate (PQ), proguanil hydrochloride (PG), PYR, and QN) on OCT1- and OCT2-mediated ASP transport
Summary
HIV/AIDS, and tuberculosis endemic areas show considerable geographical overlap, leading to incidence of co-infections This requires treatment with multiple drugs, potentially causing adverse drug–drug interactions (DDIs). As anti-malarials are generally positively charged at physiological pH, they are likely to interact with human organic cation transporters 1 and 2 (OCT1 and OCT2) These transporters are involved in the uptake of drugs into hepatocytes and proximal tubule cells for subsequent metabolic conversion or elimination. Other important SLCs implicated in the transport of cationic drugs are multidrug and toxin extrusion (MATE) protein 1 and MATE2-K They are primarily located to the apical side of proximal tubule cells (both) [15, 16] and hepatocytes (MATE1) [15], where they export drugs into the urine and bile, respectively.
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