Problems Arising in The Translation Process

The problem of linguistic and cultural knowledge correlation in terms of English as an International Language learning deserves special attention as one of the topical issues in reference to the new methods of knowledge and skills acquisition, required in the present-day global society. Language learning determined by particular cultural and conceptual bases faces new challenges in the case of EIL, as culture should be discussed within different terms in this connection and serve to achieve different educational goals. Within this context, culture is referred to as both the subject of studies and the means of learning. It is used as the source of information for EIL learners and helps to create a multicultural environment to facilitate the process of intercultural professional communication. Culture can be learned both from the point of view of similarity and its difference, which correlates with the basic tendencies in semiosic systems development. The use of modern information technologies as well as the lifetime learning mode in which modern citizens live and work seeks new approaches and methods of knowledge acquisition. The multimodal approach to language and culture deserves special attention from the viewpoint of EIL learning as it implicates elaboration of certain methodology that covers the whole complex of modes based on the use of the human senses abilities as well as different semiotic systems including language. The approach in question seems to be used for the purpose of educational process optimization, especially with reference to the purposes of EIL studies and the role of culture in this concern. To analyze the problem in detail and to demonstrate the validity of cultural knowledge application within EIL learning and teaching, the survey that included 3 questionnaires has been carried out on the basis of the materials presented by 62 linguistic (English philology) and 60 non-linguistic (Social sciences) students. The answers contained in the questionnaire enabled the authors to come to the conclusions as referred to the validity of multimodal approach application with respect to cultural and linguistic skills and knowledge acquisition within the scope of EIL learning and teaching.

This article reports on a study that attempts to examine the cultural learning styles of international students learning Chinese in China and their engagement in activities associated with linguistic and cultural knowledge. By drawing upon the previous research around cultural dimensions of learning styles and knowledge transmission and sharing, this paper explores the impact of cultural differences on Chinese language learning and on the level of engagement in activities involving multicultural and multilingual knowledge. Through looking at the Chinese learning experiences of international students coming from Asian countries, this study showcases how the learners' cultural styles of learning interact with their existing cultural and linguistic knowledge during their Chinese language learning in the target learning context. It is expected that this study will inform future research on cultural learning styles and knowledge exchange and sharing among Chinese learning students. The findings will have implications for language practitioners and educators to be upfront with linguistic and cultural diversity over the course of their education practices and to unleash the power of knowledge this diversity distinctively entails. This study will also shed light on the research and best practices in learning and teaching of Chinese language and other languages and cultures.

Switching from the source language to the target language is an essential and crucial element of the translation process which to a large extent determines the effectiveness of cross-cultural communication in translation. We propose that such switching be viewed as the switching of linguocultural codes, thus allowing us to stress the importance of viewing translation as a contact of two linguocultures. The process of linguocultural code-switching is based on a number of mechanisms, mental processes and operations, one of which being access to and retrieval of linguistic means used to describe a particular fragment of reality in the target linguoculture. It is assumed that effective language retrieval depends on the “distinctness” of linguistic knowledge based on the stimulus-response connection between conceptual information and its linguistic manifestation. We believe that a mental structure for translator’s linguistic and cultural knowledge should be viewed as a frame. We identified a number of characteristics of the frame suggesting that it can ensure the above-mentioned distinctness of linguistic knowledge. These characteristics include the ability of frame structures to form a ‘vision’ of a fragment of reality in a linguoculture, integrate conceptual and linguistic knowledge into a unified single system, facilitate the integration of information into memory structures, create favourable conditions for the activation and retrieval of linguistic knowledge, create framework for probabilistic forecasting. A comparison of these characteristics with the mechanisms and processes of linguocultural switching has shown that frame-based knowledge can increase their speed and effectiveness, especially in translation from L1 to L2 which is known to be most challenging. It is also hypothesised that the development and use of a frame knowledge base can be made more effective due to reliance on metalinguistic awareness. It provides better language competence, indispensable for a translator, distinctness of linguistic and cultural knowledge, better understanding of norm and usage, translation skills development and the ability to code-switch; it also stimulates creative thinking which allows for a more effective search and use of linguistic means. The author draws a conclusion that development of frame-based knowledge about a foreign language should be made systematic and be part of translator’s professional competence taken into account by curricula for trainee translators.

This study aims to identify the variables resulting from the use of modern communication technology and its effect in modernizing the Bedouin community. The researcher used the descriptive approach and blogging because it is the closest approach to achieving the research objectives. The study was descriptive and the data were collected using some anthropological methods, a personal interview tool and questionnaire. This study aims to identify the variables resulting from the use of modern communication technology and its effect in modernizing the Bedouin community. The researcher used the descriptive approach and blogging because it is the closest approach to achieving the research objectives. The study was descriptive and the data were collected using some anthropological methods, a personal interview tool and questionnaire. The researchers used the theory of functional constructivism and the theory of Daniel Lerner and some other theories of modern sociology that explain the impact of modern modern technology on the pattern of relationships and these are the most appropriate approaches to the present study as the use of modern technology that carries many of the programs employed by man in his service, including communication programs It is one of the most important means of mass communication that allows individuals, communities, minorities and the majority to express their views and support it in all ways of expression and thus affect the nature of social relations and also allow the transfer and exchange Knowledge of different cultures. The study resulted in a set of results including: - Most of the 79.5% of the Bedouin have mobile phones and a social media account and spend a lot of time using the Internet - The most important changes associated with the use of modern technology is the nature of social relations - One of the most important variables resulting from the use of modern technology is the waste of time and weak social relations. - The results also indicate the presence of 79% of the holders of telephone and computer users in the Badia community and follow-up multiple television programs and this is evident in uniform for both men and women and some of the phrases used to keep them away from their culture. The study concluded with a number of recommendations including: Using modern technology and staying away from the programs that promoted the cultures of the West that are incompatible with Eastern Arab customs and traditions Raising awareness of the importance of using modern technology especially social networking sites and the damages that can occur

Background A critical issue in academic assessment is the effect of children's language and culture on their measured performance. Research on this topic has rarely focused on science education, because science is commonly (though erroneously) assumed to be “culture free.” Students’ scientific understandings are influenced by the cultural values, experiences, and epistemologies of their home communities. Efforts to minimize cultural bias include designing tests to be “culturally neutral” and, conversely, tailoring assessments to specific cultural groups; both approaches are theoretically and practically problematic. Several studies have focused on testing accommodations for English language learners (ELLs), but accommodations raise validity and feasibility issues and are limited by “English-only” policies. This article stresses the linkages between language and culture, drawing on contemporary literacy theory and research on scientific communities as well as groups traditionally marginalized from science. Objective To examine how children's prior linguistic and cultural knowledge mediates their engagement with school science, as reflected in their responses on science assessments. Participants Over 1,500 students from six elementary schools serving diverse populations. Research Design Project-developed assessments included items requiring students to explain scientific phenomena. Scoring revealed that students misinterpreted some items, and scorers had difficulty understanding some students’ responses. Project personnel then undertook qualitative discourse analysis of responses on all tests. Findings Analysis revealed phonological/orthographic and semantic interference from students’ home languages; responses reflecting students’ cultural beliefs and practices; and “languacultural” features related to genre, authorial voice, pragmatic framing, and textual organization. Conclusions/Recommendations Science tests inevitably contain tacit cultural and linguistic knowledge that is not equally accessible to all students. Using “real-life scenarios” in assessment items may confuse students whose lives do not reflect mainstream norms. Furthermore, English-medium assessments are unlikely to accurately measure ELLs’ science knowledge. Teachers can learn to recognize factors that impede ELLs from grasping or expressing science concepts clearly. They should also ensure that all students understand the discursive and textual conventions inherent in assessment instruments. Linguistic and cultural factors shape science knowledge not only of students but of teachers, scientists, and test developers. Uncovering the factors shaping students’ academic performance requires fine-grained qualitative analysis and collaboration across disciplinary boundaries.

Reading, according to Butterflies et al. (2020), is a cognitive process involving the decoding of written symbols to extract or construct meaning. However, from a pragmatist perspective, this notion is outdated and insufficient. Reading is no longer merely a passive act of decoding thoughts. Instead, it should be perceived as an active and dynamic interaction between the reader and the text. A student interpretation of a text is significantly influenced by their schemata, which includes cultural background knowledge, personal experiences, and prior understanding. This perspective does not discount the crucial role of linguistic knowledge in reading comprehension. Instead, it highlights the fact that cultural knowledge is equally essential for achieving a complete and genuine understanding of the text. Linguistic and cultural knowledge are interconnected and should not be viewed in isolation. When these elements are separated, the reader fails to grasp the full significance and richness of what they are reading, resulting in an incomplete and superficial interpretation. This paper argues that to fully comprehend a text, both linguistic and cultural contexts must be considered together, providing a holistic and meaningful reading experience for students.<p> </p><p><strong> Article visualizations:</strong></p><p><img src="/-counters-/soc/0736/a.php" alt="Hit counter" /></p>

By definition, beginning foreign language learner-readers lack linguistic knowledge and/or cul- tural knowledge inherently assumed in foreign language literary texts. Such gaps in information may result in possible mismatches between the interaction between beginning learner-readers' linguistic knowledge of Spanish, their Hispanic cultural knowledge, and the linguistic and cultural knowledge assumed in a Spanish- language literary text. To preclude problems of comprehension problems, a strategic orientation to the devel- opment of reading tasks can enhance the interaction of beginning learner-readers with Spanish-language lit- erary texts.

The Three-Body Problems is a representative work of Liu Cixin, who is a Chinese science fiction writer. This novel tells that humans have triggered the signal of contacting with the three-body civilization outside the universe, so they start a desperate struggle to save the earth. The translation of this book won the 73rd Hugo Award for Best Novel after translated by Liu Yukun, who is a Chinese-American writer. The translator adopted different translation methods to represent the original text to improve the readability and appreciation of the book. The readers not only can obtain the content and but also can feel the writing style of the author while reading. At the same time, the popularity of its English version of also promotes the international process of Chinese science fiction. From the perspective of Morris' semiotic, this article analyzes some cases in English version of this book through semiotic trichotomy to discuss the role of the translator's subjectivity. Morris explained the concepts of syntactics, semantic and pragmatics, which refer to the relationship between the different signs, the signs and referent, signs and interpreter respectively in the Foundation of the Theory of Signs. Translator's Subjectivity refers to a kind of subjective initiative shown by the translator who is the main part in translation process and wants to achieve the translation aims. The author of this article finds some translation phenomena that the translator changes the original content appropriately, resolves the differences between different culture by exerting his creative role in the translation to make the translation closer to the culture and reading habits of target readers. Therefore, the author categorized these different translation phenomena according to the linguistic meaning, designative meaning and pragmatic meaning: Firstly, it is divided into recombination of science fiction elements and synesthesia of dynamic parts of speech according to the relationship of different language signs. The writer often creates some science fiction words that are beyond the real world. The translator uses the method of word-building and reorganizes the root and meaning while dealing with such words. Focusing on some words that the original author uses ABAB-type words to simulate the sound effect, the translator adopts the descriptive explanation to reach the semantic equivalence trough the verb nominalization. Secondly, Referential meaning and literal meaning are not equivalent because of the difference between the language and culture according to the relationship of signs and referents. This article analyzes the translation method of idioms and a two-part allegorical saying in source text. The translator must possess bilingual language and cultural knowledge, analyzing the referential meaning of source text and giving the interpretant by considering context in different language culture, so that reach the equivalence of designative meaning and make up the language vacancy. Thirdly, it is divided into adjustment of chronological order and structure in text as well as annotation on diachronic words. The writer adopts the narrative method of interposition. The translator adjusts the time and space development order of the narrative and revises the frame structure of the original text narrative without changing the meaning. And the translator also divides the article into three parts which reflect the translator's understanding and recreating for source text. In recent years, most of domestic researches focus on the theoretical interpretation and application of Saussure and Pierce's semiotics. There are relatively few literatures that combine Morris semiotics with translation. Moreover, there is no research that combines semiotics with translator's subjectivity. It is a new field to study the literary translation by using semiotics. It is helpful to study the literary translation due to the strong practice guidance and operability of Morris' semiotics. The research in this article expands the research scope of semiotics to a certain extent. It also enriches the research field of semiotics and provides a new theoretical perspective for translation research of science fiction literature.

Knowledge of language and knowledge about the world: A reaction time study of invited and necessary inferences

Knowledge of Language and Knowledge about the World: A Reaction Time Study of Invited and Necessary Inferences*

The mainstream pedagogy of intercultural contact and communication has tended to give precedence to linguistic and cultural knowledge, the 'translation' of such knowledge, hence 'intercultural competence'. This paper argues what has been overlooked is the essential power saturation of intercultural encounters, where power is defined as textual practice of domination, exclusion or prejudice as well as contextual background of such relations and practices. As its central task, the paper suggests accordingly that new and alternative pedagogical discourses of combating power are needed and how such discourses can be implemented. Basically, this discursive transformation of intercultural pedagogy means that we teachers, trainers and consultants should try to introduce the discourses of diversity, equality, common goals and above all rational-moral motivation with respect to the Other - to society at large, starting with its youngest members possible. Methodologically, this work requires that we abandon the traditional role of imparting linguistic, cultural, and translation knowledge and try instead to develop a dialogue with students and practitioners through which we jointly initiate, (re-)formulate, debate and execute such new discourses.

Teacher's knowledge can influence the act of teaching and affect children's learning outcomes. Linguistic and language knowledge of teachers plays an important role in supporting learners at the beginning to read stage. This study examines the language and linguistic knowledge of teachers of beginning readers in New Zealand, how these teachers perceive their own practices in teaching reading, and the relationship with the nature of observed instructional practices. The teachers in the study used predominantly implicit approaches to early reading instruction, with word-level instruction and prompting used only after context, even when teachers with high linguistic knowledge used implicit approaches, suggesting that teacher's knowledge is not sufficient, on its own, to ensure effective, explicit, word-level instruction to beginning readers.

Background: Use of modern communication technologies by teachers and students is an inventible strategy in educational centers. The aim of this study is to evaluate the social factors involved in using modern means of communication by female high school students in the city of Yazd, Iran. Methods: The present research is a cross-sectional study conducted in 2015. As many as 365 girl students selected through a multiple-stage cluster sampling method took a researcher-made questionnaire that studied demographic characteristics and evaluated the extent of using modern communication technologies such as computer software programs, the Internet network, mobile phones, and social networks. The investigated social factors were age, family dimension, school type, family income, and parents’ education. Results: The findings showed that the use of modern communication technologies by students with mean 39.3 was lower than average, while computer software had a mean of 37.9, the Internet with a mean of 37.6, networks social media with a mean of 31.6, which was less than average, and mobile phone with a mean of 56 was higher average that, this difference is statistically significant(P < 0.001). Variables such as school type (P < 0.001), parents’ education (P < 0.001), and family income (P = 0.04) had a significant correlation with the extent of using modern communication technologies (P < 0.05), while age and family dimension proved to have no correlation in this regard. Conclusions: Use of modern communication technologies is associated with family income and parents’ education. It means that an increase in parents’ education and family income will lead to a higher level of skills in using these technologies. Educational policy makers should provide the poor segment of the society with an access to modern technologies. Attention to the risks of social networks is also recommended.

The American demographic is drastically changing from a largely white, European-American population to one that is extremely diverse. This shift in demographics has impacted on state schools. Students often experience a cultural shock due to a mismatched monocultural, monlinguistic curriculum in schools. This qualitative study explored the way four Reading Recovery teachers attempted to make their Reading Recovery instruction culturally responsive for their culturally and linguistically diverse students. Through constant comparative analysis of data collected through pre- and post-interviews, bi-weekly professional development sessions and debriefings, reflective journals, and artefacts, it was found that the teachers' practices shifted in three main ways: observation, conversation and instruction. Participating teachers found ways to utilize students' social, cultural and linguistic knowledge to establish links between the familiar and new to make learning to read and write easier for their students. Thinking intentionally about the tenets of culturally responsive teaching as well as students' linguistic, social and cultural knowledge, participating teachers found ways to enact culturally responsive teaching in their Reading Recovery instruction.

This article interprets research in linguistics and psychology in order to revise and enlarge existing definitions of readability. It suggests instructional methods for teaching students to compose more coherent—and, hence, more readable—technical writing. For a text to be readable, it must be coherent. However, like readability, coherence is variable, depending on the writer and the reader as well as the text itself. The reader is able to understand a message by relying on his shared knowledge with the writer. A starting place for comprehension, cultural and professional knowledge and linguistic knowledge allow readers to set up expectations about a text and to read efficiently. Because accommodating shared knowledge is vital to readable writing, we should teach students how to assess typical audiences and compose in forms routinely used for technical documents. With practice in audience analysis, students learn to accommodate a reader's professional and cultural knowledge. With practice in traditional organizational patterns, stylistic imitation of readable writing, they learn to accommodate common expectations about language and form.