„Priversti išvykti“: politinių migrantų iš Baltarusijos po 2020 m. etninio, nacionalinio ir transnacionalinio identiteto aspektai

1. Introduction The world around us is shrinking continually--distances and boundaries that previously held considerable separation power have been markedly eroded by developments in technology and international cooperation. This has created many new situations of intercultural contact, highlighted previously existing identity conflicts and brought to the fore a number of new ones. To tackle the resulting challenges adequately, researchers have focused considerable effort in investigating the field of acculturation and bicultural identity formation. Although various multiculturalism issues have been studied for some time already, there is yet no widespread agreement concerning the strategies used by individuals and groups in forming a bicultural identity and in combining the ethnic and national dimensions of identity (Phinney et al. 2001, Sidanius et al.). One of the central problems of multiculturalism lies in the fact that minorities tend to draw a distinction between the ethnic and the national identity, while majority groups do not, because their ethnic and national identity usually coincide. In the current study we define these component identities as follows: ethnic identity focuses on the feeling of belonging to one's group of origin, i.e. ethnic group (Phinney 1990), while national identity refers to feelings of belonging to a larger society or a state, and involves a political or a civic component (Smith 1991, Phinney et al. 2001). For members of an ethnic minority both identities--ethnic and national--are necessary for effective adaptation (Oudenhoven 2006). Such adaptation, in turn, tends to correlate with higher life satisfaction (Pavot and Diener 2008). While most immigrant groups demonstrate a relatively strong ethnic identity, the strength of their national identity as well as the strength and direction of the relationship between their ethnic and national identity is shown to be more variable and to relate to the specific acculturation context (Phinney et al. 2001). National identity is clearly the more complicated component of the two, because embracing the national identity of the host country presumes, on the one hand, that the minorities are willing to adopt it and, on the other hand, that the host majority is ready to share it. The study reported in this article investigated the relationship between ethnic identities and the Estonian national identity (1) among different ethnic groups in Estonia. The aim of the study was to identify those aspects of identity that facilitate the development of a shared national identity. In order to be acceptable to and meaningful for both the country's ethnic minorities and the majority group, these aspects must be culturally open. A national identity constructed on their basis will be referred to below as the Estonian Open Identity (EOI). The authors' general interest was to find out whether and how the ethnic and national identity of the host group (ethnic Estonians) facilitates the development of a healthy, fulfilling bicultural identity among the country's minorities. EOI should be easily combinable with different ethnic identities and thus facilitate bicultural identity development. The principal research question underlying the study was: What are or could be the dimensions of the Estonian national identity that are open enough to allow adoption to be adopted by all ethnic groups in Estonia? 1.1 Ethnic minority acculturation and bicultural identity Preserving one's ethnic identity and adopting the national majority identity of the society or state of residence can be viewed as expressions of the two main dimensions of psychological acculturation--maintenance or loss of the original culture and adoption of or separation from the new host culture. There are several models of acculturation to account for the process of cultural and psychological change that takes place in the host and home culture, or in the national and ethnic identity of minority group members (for a comprehensive overview see LaFromboise et al. …

The current stage of the formation and development of the Ukrainian state is characterized by the special relevance of the issue of the formation of the national identity of its citizens. This is so, because a high level of an individual's ethnic identity is a significant aspect of the successful formation and development of the state and the harmony of its citizens. At the same time, the public consciousness of Ukrainians is currently filled with political interests and the latest ideological slogans. The latter, in turn, causes the destruction of the national system of values. Globalization and migration processes lead to increased interaction between different cultures and nations, which makes the study of national identity more relevant. Personality is a complex system influenced by both internal personal factors and the external environment, including cultural, social, and historical factors. The study of psychological features of national identity helps to understand how the self-awareness of an individual is formed in the context of its cultural roots and interaction with other cultures. This is important for many areas of life. The study of the psychological features of national identity involves the study of the following aspects: cultural stereotypes, values, self-esteem, a sense of belonging to a certain nation or ethnic group, etc. Understanding these psychological features will contribute to the development of a more tolerant society, as well as the identification of ways to support positive self-determination and identity in different cultural contexts. National identity is the recognition of the people themselves; knowledge and respect for history; national culture, territory, and the people's awareness of their own special features, as well as the understanding of the representatives of the national group of their own interests, goals, and needs. "National identity" is a category whose main elements are national self-determination, national self-awareness and traditional culture. A significant condition for the formation of the national (ethnic) identity of an individual is systematic interaction with the reference group for the purpose of forming common goals, vision and support of the national identity. Such interactions will help to confirm a high level of national identity of an individual and activate the mechanism of ethnic identification. And also to intensify socio-psychological factors and develop the components of the national identity of the individual.

Based on the empirical research, the article considers the correlation of national and ethnic identities of the youth of Saint Petersburg. The authors conclusions are based on a series of sociological studies conducted in 1996, 2011 and 2019 by the Laboratory of Ethnic Sociology and Psychology of the Faculty of Sociology of the Saint Petersburg State University under the guidance of Z.V. Sikevich and also on the data of other researchers studying similar issues in different Russian regions. The authors present their interpretation of the structure of national identity and typology of ethnic identities; consider the following forms of correlation of national and ethnic identities - dominant ethnic identity, ethnic radicalism, dominant national identity, ethno-national radicalism, ethnic and national indifference; focus on the rank of national identification in the system of group identities and on the indicators of national consolidation; use content analysis to identify the symbolic interpretations of the words Russia, citizen and patriot; analyze contradictions in the national identity of the youth. The article presents the following most important findings of the study: 1) national (civil) identity dominates other forms of social identification of the youth; 2) in the structure of social identities, confessional identity is insignificant, while there is negative distancing towards representatives of Islam; 3) ethnic and ethno-national radicalism is typical for men; 4) compared to 2011, the positive trend of statist attitudes and the negative trend of critical attitudes to power are obvious; 5) the perceived norm and attitudinal behavior of the youth are not quite consistent; 6) gender affects the level and type of both ethnic and national identity.

Abstract. How immigrants define their ethnicity and nationality is relevant for integration: They can identify with their ethnic group, the receiving society, and a combination of both. A longitudinal study with elementary-school children with migration background ( N = 200; age 9–10) in Germany investigated the predictors and stability of ethnic and national identities. Ethnic identity was more highly endorsed than national identity. National and dual identities were compatible (i.e., positively related), whereas ethnic identity was compartmentalized (i.e., unrelated to national and dual identities). Contact with Germans predicted national identity over time, but not vice versa. Thus, the study contributes to a better understanding of multiple social identities of young ethnic minority children in light of social psychological theories of social identity development.

ABSTRACTWe examined the importance of parental culture maintenance behaviour, bilingualism, ethnic identity, and national identity for the well-being of adolescents in multicultural Indonesia. We tested a mediation model in which the link between (perceived) parental culture maintenance behaviour and well-being is mediated through speaking Bahasa at home and national identity on the one hand and speaking the ethnic language at home and ethnic identity on the other hand. Participants were 448 adolescents (261 females) from four Indonesian ethnic groups (Chinese from Java, Chinese from North Sumatra, Batak, and Javanese), aged between 12 and 19 years (Mage = 15.92 years). We found support that parental culture maintenance was positively related to both ethnic and national identity, was correlated to the usage of ethnic language at home, but not correlated to usage of Bahasa Indonesia at home, language usage was not associated with identity; there was no link between parental culture maintenance behaviour and usage of languages at home with well-being, but both national and ethnic identity were positively associated with children’s well-being across groups. We conclude that parental culture maintenance, ethnic identity, and national identity are important for the well-being of adolescents, whereas speaking the language is independent from well-being and ethnic identity.

Due to its diverse nature, being an Indonesian is sometimes confusing as it entails overlapping national, ethnic and religious identity. By using a social representation approach, online survey research involving 114 Indonesians was carried out to explore these questions: How do Indonesians negotiate their ethnic, religious and national identity? What identity markers should one possess to claim being an Indonesian? And lastly, who is the nationalist? Research findings suggest that national and ethnic identity as well as ethnic and religious identity were consensual, while the relation between religious and national identity was emancipated. It is also found that being a Muslim and possessing a stronger sense of ethnic identity would increase the likelihood of being a prouder Indonesian, while being a female, living abroad for 5–10 years, being a nationalist Muslim and embracing transnational Islamic movements reduced the probability of having a stronger sense of national identity.

The number of immigrants and children born to immigrant parents in Europe has risen steadily. Related to debates as to how best integrate immigrants, research points to the importance of investigating the structure as well as antecedents and consequences of immigrants' multiple identities. Here, we explore the relationship between three different identities endorsed by adolescent Turkish‐origin immigrants in Germany: ethnic identity (i.e., Turkish identity), national identity (i.e., German identity), and dual identity (i.e., German–Turkish identity). In two studies, Turkish‐origin adolescents in Germany (Study 1: N = 91, age: M = 15.18, SD = 0.97; Study 2: N = 95, age: M = 15.26, SD = 0.90) completed measures of multiple identities, contact with native Germans, and feelings of being integrated in Germany. Results show that adolescents' dual identity was positively related to their national identity but negatively related to their ethnic identity. Ethnic and national identities were also negatively related. Further, when Turkish‐origin students had more contact with native Germans, they felt more at home in Germany, mediated by their national and dual identity. Results are discussed in terms of the role that identity construction plays in the integration of immigrants into host societies.

This special issue challenges the concept of fluidity and flexibility of identities by demonstrating that ‘new’ European identity is not easily adopted and that the co-existence of ethnic and national identities is an ongoing process of negotiation. The theoretical approach assuming multiple identities can be confirmed for ethnic minorities in Central and Eastern Europe who were often thought to be focused on ethnic identities. This issue provides empirical quantitative and qualitative evidence for showing that ethnic minorities typically relate to their ethnic identity and to the national identity of their residence country simultaneously. The individual papers reveal that the development and maintenance of ethnic, national and European identities are often linked to the socio-economic situation and possible benefits. Also, social and cultural practices such as language and media consumption are crucial for the construction of identities. Furthermore, articles in the special issue highlight that national and European politics, above all minority rights and integration policies, may contribute to ethnic and European identification.

This book challenges the concept of fluidity and flexibility of identities by demonstrating that ‘new’ European identity is not easily adopted and that the co-existence of ethnic and national identities is an ongoing process of negotiation. The theoretical approach assuming multiple identities can be confirmed for ethnic minorities in Central and Eastern Europe who were often thought to be focused on ethnic identities. The book provides empirical quantitative and qualitative evidence for showing that ethnic minorities typically relate to their ethnic identity and to the national identity of their residence country simultaneously. The individual chapters reveal that the development and maintenance of ethnic, national and European identities are often linked to the socio-economic situation and possible benefits. Furthermore, the book highlights that national and European politics, above all minority rights and integration policies, may contribute to ethnic and European identification.

Reviewed by: Children's Fiction about 9/11: Ethnic, Heroic and National Identities Paula T. Connolly (bio) Children's Fiction about 9/11: Ethnic, Heroic and National Identities. By Jo Lampert. New York: Routledge, 2010. In her examination of a selection of picture books and young adult literature, Jo Lampert explores the cultural impact of the September 11th attacks as represented in children's literature about 9/11, particularly the ways in which personal and communal identities have been refigured as a response to the attacks. Focusing on the intersecting constructions of ethnic, heroic, and national identities, she examines how vying representations—of multiculturalism and isolationism, grief and recovery, vulnerability and agency-share an often uneasy narrative space as authors attempt to create new post-9/11 identities. Lampert's first two chapters set the context for her study. In "Children's Literature and Its Cultural Influence," she draws upon literary and cultural theorists to make the case that the September 11th attacks precipitated a recreation of personal and national identity, particularly for Americans. Facets of this identity shift, she argues, are evinced in children's literature as characters model new identities and ideologies of ethnicity, nationality, and heroism. These texts also anticipate—if not prescribe—the emotional state of readers, often implying their vulnerability and ready need for stories to "heal" the wounded reader (18). In "Identity Shifts after 9/11," Lampert provides a primer on the theoretical perspectives, principally postmodernism and postcolonialism, that inform her study of shifting narrative representations of identity. Her site of interest, she notes, is the space between narratively depicted binaries—between, for example, "American" and "Arab," "inclusion" and "isolation." In the following three chapters—"Ethnic Identities," "National Identities," and "Heroic Identities"—Lampert does the core work of her study, providing close readings to demonstrate how the three categories inextricably intersect. In "Ethnic Identities," she discusses the picture books On That Day (Patel 2001) and There's a Big Beautiful World Out There (Carlson 2002), arguing that through such techniques as the use of personal pronouns (particularly "us" and "we") and the visual representations of white protagonists who must be reassured about the state of the world, the texts construct a "unified [and exclusive] American subject" (55). She further explores contesting [End Page 480] ideologies in the Parvana series for young adults. Told from the point of view of an Arab protagonist, the novels nonetheless ultimately argue for the universal acceptance of Western values. Lampert points out, for example, that representing Arab women as victims, weak, or desirous of becoming "Westernized" makes them "palatable" (65) to intended (largely American) readers. Such representations, she notes, imagine Western countries (particularly America) as necessary saviors and models of civilization. As Lampert points out, such ethnic scripting does little to further any real sense of multiculturalism or appreciation of diversity. In "National Identities," Lampert discusses the picture books It's Still a Dog's New York (Roth 2001) and the Caldecott-awarded The Man Who Walked Between the Towers (Gerstein 2003), as well as the young adult novels Lucy and the Liberty Quilt (London 2001) and Girl X Recreated (Rowe 2002). Here she interrogates how, in It's Still a Dog's New York, Roth's creation of a romanticized national identity evinces a sense of a "national 'forgetting'" that erases "the homelessness, racial tension [and . . .] crime that are also familiar New York narratives" (98). Girl X Recreated, which was in the process of being written when the 9/11 attacks occurred, takes the "form of a fictionalized electronic diary" between Girl X of then-present day 2001 and a boy living in the year 3002 (124). In her choice of this text, Lampert explores 9/11 as a moment of "interruption"; set in Australia, Girl X Recreated both suggests the worldwide impact of the 9/11 attacks and the temporality of their effect as the characters return to typical matters of personal teenage angst a few months after the attacks. The final chapter examines the recreation of heroism following 9/11. From the picture books Bravemole (Jonell 2002) and Fireboat (Kalman 2002) to DC Comics' two-volume anthology, September 11th 2001 (2002), Lampert argues that the construction...

The article points out the importance of the study of national identity since the constant development of a sovereign state depends on it. Different approaches to the definition of the concept of «national identity» as a form of collective identity are defined. The problems of modern research are hilighted. It is noted that the subject of the study is the content of the concept of "national identity"; features of this identity and its place among other collective identities; dependence of the solidarity of fellow citizens on national identity; the impact of the effectiveness of public administration on the formation of national identity. The article stressess that national identity is changing and may experience a crisis. One of these factors, which leads to a change in national identity, is globalization. The scientists’ interest in the problem of the formation of national identity is due to different circumstances in different countries. The article shows the peculiarity of the formation of national identity in democratic and non-democratic states. Examples of the formation of state identity in authoritarian states are given. The features of national identity and political nation and the connection of the processes of their formation are considered. Attention is paid to the factors influencing the national identity, *problems of the formation of Ukrainian identity. It is indicated that during the information war, the state must form a culture of critical perception of information, its analysis. The absence of such a culture leads to insecurity due to manipulative influences, the spread of Russian narratives. Russia’s full-scale war against Ukraine in 2022 accelerated the processes of national identification of Ukrainians and consolidation. This is confirmed by the results of sociological studies. The loss of national identity leads to the destruction of values, disintegration of society. An indicator of the success of the formation of national identity is patriotism and the stability of society in the struggle for the state sovereignty. The development of national identity and political nation in modern Ukraine is one of the main conditions for maintaining and strengthening state sovereignty. Key words: identity, national identity, national self-awareness, political nation, state sovereignty

Theater and performance are powerful tools for definition of national and ethnic identity. Nation, nationalism, ethnicity and identity are all unstable terms and concepts. In the 17th through the 20th centuries, there occurred a fundamental imposition of Western culture onto already-existent Asian cultures. Much of contemporary Asian nations and cultures saw their original, precolonial forms shaped and transformed first by colonialism, then by war, and finally by a postcolonial period starting in the postwar period through the early 21st century. In the wake of imperialism and colonialism, a number of Asian nations and cultures have used indigenous arts to reassert an unbroken sense of national or ethnic identity, rejecting Western models of theater while simultaneously embracing Western modes of performance and critique. Often, modern Asian nations would either invent traditions or move a tradition out of its original context in order to reimagine that tradition for the entire nation. National identity versus ethnic identity versus cultural identity, which can be the same or completely mutually exclusive within a community or individual, varies depending on the ethnic construction of the state and the nation. The theater thus both shapes national understanding of identities and, in turn, is shaped by it. Models for understanding nation, ethnicity, and identity can be found by examining individual case studies: the Japanese sense of the Japanese and the Other who lives in Japan (specifically Zainichi or Korean Japanese); the separate national identities of the two Koreas, which also shapes and is shaped by their individual sense of ethnic identity; the multicultural, multinational, and multiethnic nature of Singaporean society; and the Asian diaspora creating new variants on national and ethnic identity. Theater can both construct or challenge national identities, and it can also be exploited to assert a specific identity in the service of the nation-state or dominant ethnic group. Globalization and technology also challenge and reinforce ideas of nation, culture, and ethnicity.

Problem setting. The Ukrainian diaspora in Brazil is one of the most remoted ethnic entity. Having a difficult history of emigration, Ukrainians have integrated quite well into the life of this country, but still managed to preserve its culture, language and traditions. The study of this phenomenon will help to clarify the conditions and factors that allowed Brazilian Ukrainians not to lose its mental connection with their homeland and to represent its nation with dignity outside Ukraine.
 Recent research and publications analysis. Various aspects of the phenomenon of the diaspora, as well as its history, place and significance in socio-economic, cultural and political life are studied by the following researchers: M. Astvartatsurova, V. Yevtukh, W. Safran, G. Sheffer and others. Issues of the Brazilian diaspora are considered by: O. Borushenko, I. Zakrevs’ka, I. Sushinska and others. Problems of national (ethnic) identity are the subject of search of such scientists as L. Bielovetska, M. Voronina, S. Sidorenko, E. Smith and others.
 Paper object. The aim of the article is to study the conditions and factors of preserving the ethnic identity of the Ukrainian diaspora in Brazil, as well as to clarify the role of religion, education, language in its provision.
 Paper main body. Today, the diaspora can be defined as an ethnic community that arises outside their homeland due to various migrations, and, due to unwillingness (or impossibility) to fully assimilate in non-ethnic societies, retains its ethnic identity (culture, language, traditions, etc.). In order to preserve, reproduce and develop, the diaspora creates certain institutions that consolidate its position and ensure interaction with the country of residence and the country of origin. 
 One of the key features in understanding the diaspora is ethnic identity, which is defined as an individual's identification with a particular nation, awareness of their belonging to a national community based on a set of characteristics (territory, citizenship, language, mentality, temperament, history, culture, religion, common interests, aspirations, goals, ideals, needs, etc.), which fundamentally distinguish this nation from other similar groups. All these characteristics are inherent in one of the most remoted ethnic communities - the Ukrainian diaspora in Brazil, which is also one of the oldest (dates back to the late nineteenth century). And quite numerous (according to various estimates from 600,000 to 1,000,000 people).
 What helps Brazilian Ukrainians not to lose, to preserve their national identity far beyond its historical homeland?
 Factors that determined the formation of the ethnic identity of the Ukrainian diaspora in Brazil are, first of all, the challenges and threats that united immigrants from Ukraine, and secondly, the territory of their compact coexistence (southeastern Brazil). An important factor in the formation and preservation of ethnic identity in Brazil is the church, that historically unites Ukrainian community. An indisputable role in preserving Ukrainian identity belongs to the native school in Brazil. From the first years, Ukrainian settlers began to take care of a place where their children could get at least primary education. Today, Brazil has a network of Sunday and Saturday schools, as well as private Ukrainian schools. An indicator of ethnic identity is the language for the study of which a favorable policy has been introduced in Brazil: there are courses in the Ukrainian language and literature; created conditions for free teaching of the Ukrainian language as a foreign language in public schools located in places of compact residence of ethnic Ukrainians. A number of cultural and public societies, which appeared at the end of the 19th century, play a significant role in preserving Ukrainian identity in Brazil and they are still functioning. Brazil is actively developing Ukrainian-language media, including Internet resources, on which Brazilians of Ukrainian origin promote and propagate Ukrainian culture.
 Conclusions of the research. Ukrainians have been quite successful in integrating in Brazil, taking a worthy place in its socio-economic and socio-political life, but at the same time they have been able to preserve their national identity. Certain factors contributed to the creation of a fairly large and authoritative Ukrainian diaspora in Brazil, which is characterized by its ethnic identity. The church, which supports and provides spiritual guidance, plays a significant role in preserving the identity of Ukrainian migrants; a school that provides education and upbringing of new generations; created socio-political and cultural associations that help to socialize in a non-ethnic society and at the same time cultivate their national traditions.

This chapter discusses the importance of ethnic and religious identities to the construction of national identity in Mauritius, a small Indian Ocean island state. First, the sociohistorical context of Mauritius, a past Dutch, French, and British colony (in that order), is described with reference to the group positions of the different ethnoreligious groups. This serves to highlight that ethnic identity and acculturation can be studied in both majority and minority groups. The chapter then reviews empirical work on the positive associations among superordinate (national) and subgroup identities (ethnic/religious) and the negotiation of multiple identities. The factors that facilitate compatibility between national and ethnic identities are discussed in terms of normative representations of the national category. These two dimensions, namely, compatibility between ethnic and national identities and normative representations of the nation in terms of cultural diversity, are the two main Mauritian “exports” that can be potentially applied across social contexts.

This article aims to explain ethnocultural neo-traditionalism as a tool for the formation of ethnic and national identity and for identification of possible interconnection and synergy of these types of identity. The authors interpret ethno-cultural neo-traditionalism and identity problems as the global manifestation of ambiguous consequences of the contemporary socio-cultural transformations. They argue for treating it as a resource for the formation of ethnic and national identity, analyzing the problems and contradictions arising in this case. The potential possibilities of the proposed conceptual scheme are illustrated by two illustrative cases: Breton (Celtic people in France) and Selkup (Siberian people in Russia). In order to achieve this goal, besides the case study, the authors have used sociocultural approach in its authorial interpretation, which allows considering ethnocultural neo-traditionalism, first, as an inter-cultural phenomenon — the effect of interaction between different ethnocultures — and second, as an integrative policy that consolidates the potential of the ethnos in synchrony and diachrony. The analysis of Breton neo-traditionalism from the abovementioned positions allowed to reveal such features as participation in the Breton cultural movement of authentic bearers of tradition, its transmission to new generations through direct immersion in a living tradition, participation in the movement of families and its mass character, absence of borders between spectators and performers, accumulation of various modifications and local variations of cultures, enrichment of tradition with modern elements and experimentation, urban localization of holidays, formation of cultural industry, and organization of international cultural festivals, inclusive of various social and cultural practices. Such experience, presented in the Selkup cultural movement, forms and confirms a positive ethnic identity with the assistance of the state. Cultural expansion and international recognition of ethnocultural non-traditionalism practices remove the problem of local ethno-political ambitions and strengthen national identity as a prerequisite for the development of ethnic identity. Thus, the analysis shows the possibilities of cooperation, synergy of national and ethnic identities based on the implementation of the strategy of ethno-cultural non-traditionalism.