Abstract
The global market of electric vehicles has become one of the prime growth industries of the 21st century fueled by marketing efforts, which frequently assert that electric vehicles are “very efficient” and “produce no pollution.” This article uses thermodynamic analysis to determine the primary energy needs for the propulsion of electric vehicles and applies the energy/exergy trade-offs between hydrocarbons and electricity propulsion of road vehicles. The well-to-wheels efficiency of electric vehicles is comparable to that of vehicles with internal combustion engines. Heat transfer to or from the cabin of the vehicle is calculated to determine the additional energy for heating and air-conditioning needs, which must be supplied by the battery, and the reduction of the range of the vehicle. The article also determines the advantages of using fleets of electric vehicles to offset the problems of the “duck curve” that are caused by the higher utilization of wind and solar energy sources. The effects of the substitution of internal combustion road vehicles with electric vehicles on carbon dioxide emission avoidance are also examined for several national electricity grids. It is determined that grids, which use a high fraction of coal as their primary energy source, will actually increase the carbon dioxide emissions; while grids that use a high fraction of renewables and nuclear energy will significantly decrease their carbon dioxide emissions. Globally, the carbon dioxide emissions will decrease by approximately 16% with the introduction of electric vehicles.
Highlights
The first demonstration of a self-powered road vehicle was an electric vehicle (EV): in 1839 Sir William Grove invented and drove a small tractor that was powered by the electricity generated by a fuel cell
One must consider that EVs use electricity, a tertiary form of energy, which is generated by the conversion of other energy sources [9,10,11]
This paper critically examines some of the misconceptions promulgated by commercial
Summary
The first demonstration of a self-powered road vehicle was an electric vehicle (EV): in 1839 Sir William Grove invented and drove a small tractor that was powered by the electricity generated by a fuel cell. Examples are the analysis of charging EVs using renewable energy sources [5], and the effect of fleets of EVS on electric microgrids, using renewable energy sources [6] It appears that most of the papers in the literature pertain to the electrical parts of the EVs, such as batteries—including optimized methods for charging and discharging [7,8]—and motors, while fewer studies are related to the overall energy usage and the thermodynamic aspects of the EVs. This paper uses energy balances, the methodology of thermodynamics, national and global data on electricity generation and CO2 emissions, to determine the primary energy consumption and the associated environmental effects of EVs. The main research question that motivates this study is the clarification or debunking of several concepts related to the energy usage, thermodynamic efficiency, and environmental effects of EVs. Among the contributions (novelties) of this study is the delineation the energy transformations from primary energy sources to electricity, which drives the electric motors of EVs and the calculation of realistic values for the primary energy usage of EVs as well as their overall thermodynamic efficiency.
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