Prevalence and Genetic Diversity of Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon in Raptors and Other Captive Birds at the National Zoological Garden in South Africa.

Gastrointestinal parasites are commonly reported in wild birds, but transmission amongst avifauna in zoological settings, and between these captive birds and wild birds in surrounding areas, remains poorly understood. A survey was undertaken to investigate the occurrence of gastrointestinal parasites in captive and free-ranging birds at Bristol Zoo Gardens between May and July 2016. A total of 348 fecal samples from 32 avian species were examined using the Mini-FLOTAC flotation method. Parasites were detected in 31% (45/145) of samples from captive birds and in 65.5% (133/203) of samples from free-ranging birds. Parasites of captive individuals included ascarids ( Heterakis spp. and other morphotypes), capillarids, oxyurids, strongyles, a trematode, and protozoans ( Eimeria spp., Isospora spp., Caryospora sp., and Entamoeba spp.). Parasites of free-ranging birds included ascarids ( Ascaridia spp., Porrocaecum spp., and other morphotypes), capillarids, oxyurids, strongyles ( Syngamus spp. and other morphotypes), cestodes ( Choanotaenia spp., Hymenolepis spp., and other morphotypes), a trematode, and protozoans ( Eimeria spp., Isospora spp., Entamoeba spp.). Similar types of parasites were detected in captive and free-ranging birds, but capillarid ova morphology was similar only between closely related species, eg in corvids (captive azure-winged magpies [ Cyanipica cyana] and wild jackdaws [ Corvus monedula]) and between wild columbids (collared doves [ Streptopelia decaocto], rock doves [ Columba livia], and wood pigeons [ Columba palumbus]). The prevalence and intensity of nematodes and coccidia in birds housed outdoors did not differ statistically from species housed indoors. Results indicate that captive and free-ranging birds may share parasites when closely related, but this would need to be confirmed by the study of adult specimens and molecular tests. Determining which parasites are present in captive and free-ranging species in zoological parks will support the establishment of effective husbandry practices to maintain the health status of managed species.

The National Zoological Gardens (NZG) is a facility of the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) and the largest zoo in southern Africa. Among the 9000 captive animals kept by the NZG, is the endangered African penguin (Spheniscus demersus). There have been several post-mortem reports on deaths of penguins in the NZG due to haemosporidian infections, however, the haemosporidian lineages involved and possible insect vector are unknown. Haemosporidians are apicomplexan parasites that infect vertebrates through blood-sucking dipteran insects. Therefore, the current study aimed to identify mosquitoes that are potential vectors found within the African penguin enclosure as well as to detect the haemosporidian parasites from these insects using nested-PCR and real-time PCR (qPCR) analyses. Mosquito samples were collected using an overnight UV-light trap setup for 3 months. From the 65 pooled samples representing 325 mosquitoes, morphological and molecular analysis showed that Culex pipiens (52.31%) was the dominant species followed by Cx.theileri (30.77%) and Cx. quinquefasciatus (16.92%). Nested-PCR detected parasite DNA of Leucocytozoon sp. and Plasmodium sp. The Cx. pipiens had the highest minimum infection rate (MIR) of 5.88% by nested-PCR and 9.41% by qPCR whilst Cx. quinquefasciatus had MIR of 3.64% in both assays and no haemosporidian parasites were detected from Cx.theileri. One Cx. pipiens sample had a co-infection of both Plasmodium sp. and Leucocytozoon sp. detected by nested-PCR. These findings suggest that effective control measures for blood-sucking dipteran insects is required at the NZG and more studies should be conducted to determine the actual prevalence of these haemosporidian parasites among other bird species within NZG.

Monensin poisoning is uncommon and has been rarely reported in birds. This work aimed to described clinical-pathological aspects of an outbreak of monensin poisoning in captive and free-ranging birds. Thirty-seven of 600 captive birds fed a diet containing 893.19mg/kg of monensin died within 10 days (mortality 6.17%). There was no ionophore antibiotics on the feed label supplied to captive birds, which established an error in feed production. Necropsies were performed on twelve animals: Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata) (2/12), greater rhea (Rhea americana) (2/12), black-necked swan(Cygnus melancoryphus) (2/12), garganey (Anas querquedula) (1/12), ostrich (Struthio camelus) (1/12), and common pigeon (Columbus livia) (4/12). These four common pigeons were free-ranging birds and died after eating the same contaminated feed. Birds were mainly found dead, however in animals which clinical signs were observed (Columba livia, Rhea americana, Cairina moschata, Anas querquedula, and Struthio camelus), they included incoordination, inability to stand, and intense prostration, that ranged from 24 to 72h until death. Grossly, five birds had focally extensive pale firm areas in the myocardium and two had in the skeletal muscles, one being concomitant lesions. Histologically, muscle necrosis and degeneration were observed in striated musculature (skeletal and/or heart) in all birds analyzed. Monensin poisoning outbreaks can affect free-ranging birds that are fed on external feeders, as well as captive birds, due to an error in the feed formulation.

Captive birds in zoological settings often harbor parasites, but little information is available about the potential for free-ranging avifauna to act as a source of infection. This review summarizes the gastrointestinal parasites found in zoo birds globally and in seven common free-ranging avian species [mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), Eurasian blackbird (Turdus merula), common starling (Sturnus vulgaris), Eurasian jackdaw (Corvus monedula), house sparrow (Passer domesticus), European robin (Erithacus rubecula), and rock dove (Columba livia)] to identify the overlap and discuss the potential for cross-species transmission. Over 70 references were assessed, and papers spanned over 90 years from 1925 to 2019. A total of 60 studies from 1987 to 2019 met the eligibility criteria. All examined free-ranging avifauna harbored parasite species that were also reported in zoo birds, except for the European jackdaw. Parasites reported in captive and free-ranging birds include nematodes (Capillaria caudinflata, Dispharynx nasuta, Ornithostrongylus quadriradiatus, Strongyloides avium, Syngamus trachea, and Tetrameres fissispina), cestodes (Dicranotaenia coronula, Diorchis stefanskii, Fimbriaria fasciolaris, and Raillietina cesticillus, Sobolevicanthus gracilis), trematode (Echinostoma revolutum), and protozoa (Cryptosporidium baileyi). Although no study effectively proved cross-transmission either experimentally or by genetic analysis, these parasites demonstrate low host specificity and a high potential for parasite sharing. There is potential for parasite sharing whenever determinants such as host specificity, life cycle, and husbandry are favorable. More research should be carried out to describe parasites in both captive and free-ranging birds in zoological settings and the likelihood of cross-infection. Such information would contribute to evidence-based control measures, enhancing effective husbandry and preventive medicine protocols.

Diet of co-occurring Barn Owl and Spotted Eagle Owl has been studied by means of pellet contents analysis in urban and rural environments in the Highveld of South Africa. In urban environment, diet of both owl species was dominated by murid rodents (mainly Otomys, Mastomys and Rhabdomys). In rural environment, Barn Owl diet was also dominated by murid rodents, but in the diet of the Spotted Eagle Owl higher proportion of birds and non-murid rodents was recorded. Although in the rural environment the breadth of diet niche was wider in Spotted Eagle Owl (DB = 35.41) than in Barn Owl (DB = 12.67), there was almost total dietary overlap (DO = 0.98) between these two co-occurring owl species. For contrast, there was only slight food niche overlap (DO = 0.12) between these owl species co-occurring in the urban environment, but the diet breadth here was also wider in Spotted Eagle Owl (DB = 29.02) than in Barn Owl (DB = 17.90). In the urban environment diet breadth of the Spotted Eagle Owl is, therefore, slightly wider than in rural environment, while in the case of the Barn Owl the reverse is true. Probably there is lower abundance of available prey in urban and rural areas in the Highveld, in comparison with more natural habitats. This may force both species to resort to a more diverse diet to meet their energy requirements. Both species show, therefore, high plasticity of foraging.

Water efflux of captive and free-ranging malleefowl Leiopa ocellata (body mass 2.0 kg) was monitored over a complete annual cycle. Water efflux in captive adult birds remained relatively constant throughout the study period and averaged 26.3 ml. kg-'.d-', which is 30% of the predicted rate based on allometric criteria. Water efflux of free-ranging birds was higher and more variable than in captive birds and averaged 49.0 ml. kg-'.d-', 56% of the predicted rate. The low water efflux rates of malleefowl indicate that this species is well adapted to an arid environment. Multiple regression analysis failed to find a significant relationship between rainfall or mean air temperature and water efflux rate in free-ranging birds. An examination of the literature on avian water flux indicated that rates obtained from studies on captive birds are lower than those obtained from free-ranging birds; it is suggested that allometric analysis should take this factor into account. Two allometric equations are presented, one for captive birds, the other for free-ranging birds.

Studying parasites in captive wild birds is vital for their health, well-being, biodiversity preservation, species conservation, and safeguarding of both individual birds and ecosystems. It holds significance for public health by identifying potential zoonotic risks. We aimed to describe the occurrence of gastrointestinal parasites in captive wild birds from a Conservation Institute in Brazilian Cerrado biome. Fresh fecal samples were collected from 17 captive wild birds (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus, Ara ararauna, Ara chloropterus, Ara macao, Megascops choliba, Pteroglossus castanotis, Ramphastos dicolorus, Ramphastos tucanus and Strix huhula) at a Conservation Institution in Mineiros, state of Goiás. The samples were processed for Willis' simple flotation and Hoffman's spontaneous sedimentation examinations to identify parasitic forms of gastrointestinal endoparasites. Macaw aviary birds (Ar. ararauna, Ar. chloropterus and Ar. macao) showed higher positivity, with all six fecal samples positive for helminths or protozoa. In contrast, captive toucans showed only two positive results (P. castanotis and R. dicolorus). An. hyacinthinus showed Ascarididae, Capillarinae and Trematoda eggs; whereas S. huhula had Ascarididae eggs. Regular parasitological examinations are essential for the timely detection and treatment of gastrointestinal infections in captive birds, thereby enhancing overall bird management.

BackgroundThe role of zoos in conservation programmes has increased significantly in last decades, and the health of captive animals is essential to guarantee success of such programmes. However, zoo birds suffer from parasitic infections, which often are caused by malaria parasites and related haemosporidians. Studies determining the occurrence and diversity of these parasites, aiming better understanding infection influence on fitness of captive birds, are limited.MethodsIn 2011–2015, the prevalence and diversity of Plasmodium spp. and Haemoproteus spp. was examined in blood samples of 677 captive birds from the São Paulo Zoo, the largest zoo in Latin America. Molecular and microscopic diagnostic methods were used in parallel to detect and identify these infections.ResultsThe overall prevalence of haemosporidians was 12.6%. Parasites were mostly detected by the molecular diagnosis, indicating that many birds harbour subclinical or abortive infections. In this project, birds of 17 orders (almost half of all the orders currently accepted in taxonomy of birds), 29 families, and 122 species, were tested, detecting positive individuals in 27% of bird species. Birds from the Anatidae were the most prevalently infected (64.7% of all infected animals). In all, infections with parasites of the genus Plasmodium (overall prevalence 97.6%) predominated when compared to those of the genus Haemoproteus (2.4%). In total, 14 cytochrome b (cytb) lineages of Plasmodium spp. and 2 cytb lineages of Haemoproteus spp. were recorded. Eight lineages were new. One of the reported lineages was broad generalist while others were reported in single or a few species of birds. Molecular characterization of Haemoproteus ortalidum was developed.ConclusionThis study shows that many species of birds are at risk in captivity. It is difficult to stop haemosporidian parasite transmission in zoos, but is possible to reduce the infection rate by treating the infected animals or/and while keeping them in facilities free from mosquitoes. Protocols of quarantine should be implemented whenever an animal is transferred between bird maintaining institutions. This is the first survey of haemosporidians in captive birds from different orders maintained in zoos. It is worth emphasizing the necessity of applying practices to control these parasites in management and husbandry of animals in captivity.

Biodiversity Advisor, developed by the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI), is a system that will provide integrated biodiversity information to a wide range of users who will have access to geospatial data, plant and animal species distribution data, ecosystem-level data, literature, images and metadata. It aims to deliver a centralized location with open access to information to enable research, assessment and monitoring; to support policy development; to foster collaboration and advance governance. Data are aggregated from multiple, diverse data partners across South Africa including, CapeNature, the FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology, Iziko South African museum, the National Herbarium of South Africa and the South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity. This newly developed and integrated system promotes a shift from tactically-based information systems, aimed at delivering products for individual project initiatives to a strategic system that promotes the building of capacity within organisations and networks. It has been developed by integrating SANBI’s existing authoring layers through a service-orientated architecture approach, which enables seamless cross-platform integration. Some of the key authoring layers that will be integrated are, the Botanical Database of Southern Africa (BODATSA), the Zoological Database of Southern Africa (ZODATSA), the Biodiversity Geographic Information System (BGIS) and SANBI's institutional repository (Opus). Biodiversity Advisor will provide users, policy and decision makers, environmental impact practitioners and associated organizations with free access to view, query and download any of South Africa's biodiversity data available on the system, providing them with everything needed to make decisions around conservation and biodiversity planning in South Africa. All sensitive species data, which are those that are vulnerable to collecting, over-exploitation, commercial and/or medicinal use, will be redacted and only granted access upon application. Biodiversity Advisor will encourage more effective management of data within SANBI, but also encourage the sharing of data by the biodiversity community to provide integrated products and services, which are needed to address complex environmental issues.

The management of biological invasions, which pose a growing threat to natural resources and human well-being, is critical for reducing associated negative impacts. As part of the process of developing a strategy for the management of biological invasions in the South African National Biodiversity Institute’s (SANBI) gardens, we collated a list of alien plant species from 13 gardens as part of a situational analysis. We requested lists of alien plant species recorded in each of the SANBI’s gardens. A total of 380 records included 225 alien plant species belonging to 73 families. A significant number of species were intentionally introduced through horticultural trade as ornamentals (49%; n = 225), while 20.9% were consumed as either food or medicine by humans. Plant life forms included woody and herbaceous plants, graminoids, succulents and ferns. Herbaceous (42.7%; n = 225) and woody plants (3.8%) were the dominant life forms. The Walter Sisulu National Botanical Garden had the highest number of alien species (88 species), followed by Kirstenbosch (61 species) and Pretoria (46 species) National Botanical Gardens, with herbaceous species constituting the largest number in all gardens (i.e., 47, 19, and 27 species, respectively). The number of species that we recorded that were listed in the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act (NEM: BA) (Act No. 10 of 2004): Alien and Invasive Species Regulations’ categories were not notably different from the number of unlisted species (58.2% vs. 42.8%). The number of species listed in the different categories varied significantly across the different gardens, with a significantly higher number of unlisted species and of Category 1b species in the Walter Sisulu, Kirstenbosch and Pretoria National Botanical Gardens than in other gardens. That a significantly larger number of alien species originated from South America points to the need to improve biosecurity controls on existing relations. The results of this study provided a baseline database to help comparison between successive surveys in future.

Hinterland's Who’s Who: Birding, Multiplicity, and Barn Owls

Avian Influenza Virus (H5N1) Mortality Surveillance

Recent genetic population studies on Toxoplasma gondii in Brazil have shown large genetic variability. The objective of the present study was to isolate and genotypically characterize T. gondii from free-ranging and captive wild mammals and birds in Pernambuco state, Brazil. Fragments of heart, brain, skeletal muscle and diaphragm tissue from 71 birds and 34 mammals, which were either free-ranging or captive, were collected. Samples from 32 of these animals were subjected to bioassays in mice. Samples from the remaining 73 animals underwent biomolecular diagnosis, using PCR technique, targeting a repetitive DNA fragment of 529 bp in T. gondii. A non-virulent isolate (TgButstBrPE1) was obtained from a free-ranging striated heron (Butorides striata) and, based on primary samples, seven animals were found to be positive. The primary samples and the isolate obtained were subjected to PCR-RFLP using the markers SAG1, 5'3'SAG2, alt.SAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1, Apico and CS3. ToxoDB-RFLP genotype #13 from the striated heron isolate and Type BrIII genotype from a captive otter ( Lontra longicaudis) (PS-TgLonloBrPE1) were obtained. The present study describes the first isolation and genotypic characterization of T. gondii in free-ranging striated heron, and the first genotypic characterization of T. gondii in a captive otter.

The South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) has initiated the development of the National Biodiversity Information System to provide access to integrated South African biodiversity information. The aim of the project is to centrally manage all biodiversity information to support researchers, conservationists, policy and decision-makers in achieving their goals, support planners in making sensible decisions, and help SANBI understand the anthropogenic impact on biodiversity. The project is set to deliver a centralised web-based infrastructure to capture, aggregate, manage, discover, analyse and visualise biodiversity data and associated information through a suite of tools and spatial layers. The infrastructure is a Microsoft technology stack with microservices component architecture (http://microservices.io/patterns/microservices.html), which is vital to building an application out of small collaborating services, stemming from integrating the enterprise system. SANBI conducted a review of the data holdings of the individual herbaria and museums in South Africa. The intention is to have a federated approach to data management, exposing what is available as a collection but ensuring that each individual natural science collection has full ownership and management control over their data within a defined framework and governed by internationally accepted data policies and standards. The presentation highlights the opportunities and unexpected difficulties with developing a national botanical and zoological collections data management service in South Africa.

Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus/human herpesvirus 8 (KSHV/HHV-8) has been implicated in the etiopathogenesis of multiple myeloma. Although the association is biologically plausible and attractive, conflicting data have been reported, including evidence against the involvement of KSHV in the pathogenesis of the disease. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between KSHV and myeloma in blacks in South Africa, in whom the disease is not uncommon and the seroprevalence of KSHV is higher than in the areas in which this association has been documented. Using a nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay, the authors initially tested for the presence of KSHV DNA sequences (KS330(233)) in bone marrow aspirates, bone marrow biopsy material, and cultured bone marrow adherent cell samples of patients with myeloma. KSHV DNA sequences were detected in 4 of 10 (40%) of the adherent cell cultures and 1 of 20 (5%) of the bone marrow aspirate samples. None of the bone marrow biopsy samples (0/9) or control bone marrow aspirate samples (0/19) was positive. To confirm the positive results in the bone marrow cultures noted above and to exclude contamination, the procedure was repeated in a further 7 patients with myeloma and 11 controls with lymphoproliferative disorders using the same nested PCR assay. In addition, the authors used a different set of primers that recognize sequences internal to the 233-bp fragment to yield a final product of 186 bp. The authors were unable to detect any KSHV DNA sequences in the patients with myeloma (0/7) or the control patients with other lymphoproliferative disorders (0/11). Taken together, the finding of a positive result in 4 of 17 patients (23.5%), which is similar to the background seroprevalence rate, does not support a clear association between myeloma and KSHV in blacks in South Africa.