Predstavke i pritužbe protiv policijskih službenika u Republici Hrvatskoj de lege lata i de lege ferenda

In Poland, for a long time we have been dealing with the phenomenon of the spread of non-employment forms of employment in the market economy, which primarily concerns civil law contracts and self-employment, which are increasingly displacing the classic employment relationship. The author analyzes the process of expansion of protective labor law into employment relations indicated here, presents its genesis, causes, evolution, scope and boundaries. Without questioning the legitimacy of the protection guaranteed by the legislator to persons engaged in gainful employment outside the employment relationship, the author critically assesses the legal status in this area. De lege lata, we observe the lack of a systemic and comprehensive approach of the Polish legislator to this issue. Changes in this area are often made ad hoc, without a coherent and thought-out concept, also under the influence of political factors. The author of the article believes that the widest scope of protection should be guaranteed only to employees who work for the employer under conditions of subordination. Around such a defined model of employment relationship, it is possible to build other non-employment forms of employment to which labor protection law should apply to a limited extent. De lege ferenda, the author postulates the introduction of comprehensive, coherent and systemic solutions providing for the extension of protective labor law to non-employment forms of employment. It is not enough for the legislator to refer mechanically to the proper application of labor law. In addition, the Polish legislator de lege ferenda should recognize the criterion of economic dependency as a premise determining the scope of protection of persons engaged in gainful employment outside the employment relationship and determining the limits of the expansion of labor law into non-employment forms of employment.

This national (Belgian) report was written for a panel on ‘Evidence and Provisional Measures in Complex Litigation and Class Actions’ for the 2012 Buenos Aires Conference organized by the International Association of Procedural Law and the Ibero-American Institute of Procedural Law.After a general – de lege lata and de lege ferenda – description of the current Belgian procedures for handling a series or group of related claims (chapter A), the report pays attention to the motion to certify or authorize a collective action (chapter B). Particular attention is paid to the standard or burden of proof that a plaintiff must meet and the evidentiary burden inquiry by the court. In this context a detailed overview is given of the five (Belgian) means of proof in civil law and the techniques of evidence the Belgian Judicial Code contains. Finally, the report describes the standard or burden of proof after certification or authorization of any collective action (chapter C), the standard of proof of fairness of any collective settlement (chapter D), and the provisional measures relevant to collective actions (chapter E).

The paper offers a de lege lata and de lege ferenda analysis of State immunity from civil jurisdiction in cases related to environmental transboundary damage, including climate change litigations. De lege lata, the analysis focuses on the customary exceptions to State immunity, namely the restrictive doctrine and the forum tort exception. De lege ferenda, the contribution firstly discusses the recent domestic case law lifting jurisdictional immunity for acts jure imperii which amount to serious violations of human rights and/or humanitarian law. Secondly, it seeks to open the discussion on a possible reform of the forum tort exception on the model of the European discipline of private international law in matters of tort, in order to ensure better protection of the individual right to an effective remedy.

Između zakonskog založnog prava na brodu i zrakoplovu postoji pravna korelacija, s obzirom na slične imovinskopravne karakteristike i globalnu zakonsku regulativu stvarnopravnih odnosa na tim pokretninama velike vrijednosti. Odredbama čl. 175. Zakona o obveznim i stvarnopravnim odnosima u zračnom prometu u postupku ovrhe na zrakoplovu predviđena je adekvatna primjena odredbi čl. 867. – 988. Pomorskog zakonika o postupku ovrhe na brodu. Analiza odredbi Pomorskog zakonika i Zakona o obveznim i stvarnopravnim odnosima u zračnom prometu o knjižnom režimu za zakonska založna prava na brodu i zrakoplovu (pomorski i zračni privilegiji) ukazuje na identičnu problematiku koja se može pojaviti u postupku sudskog namirenja tražbina vjerovnika. Ovlaštenik zračnog privilegija ima zakonsku ovlast upisati svoju tražbinu, ako ishodi upis tražbine podnošenjem zahtjeva za upis u registar civilnih zrakoplova, za razliku od pomorskog privilegija u pogledu kojeg je zakonskim odredbama određeno da za postanak pomorskog privilegija i pravne učinke prema trećima nije potreban upis u upisnik brodova, ali se tim odredbama posebno ne spominje ovlast na podnošenje zahtjeva za upis. Ako je ovlaštenik zračnog privilegija podnio zahtjev za upis u registru, njegova se upisana tražbina nalazi u ovršnim spisima i poznata je ovršnom sudu pa nema zapreke da bude obaviješten od strane suda o postupku ovrhe koji je pokrenuo drugi vjerovnik kao ovrhovoditelj i poduzima postupovne radnje u svome interesu. Međutim, ako ne ishodi upis svoje tražbine, jer nije podnio zahtjev za upis vlastitom voljom ili iz objektivnih razloga, izložen je identičnoj problematici vezanoj za ovlaštenika neupisanog pomorskog privilegija, odnosno problematici skrivenih (nevidljivih) tražbina za ovršni sud, vjerovnike i druge zainteresirane osobe u pokrenutom postupku ovrhe. Skrivene tražbine mogu spriječiti ostvarenje samog cilja ovrhe – neupitno namirenje tražbina vjerovnika. Stoga se u radu prvenstveno iznose prijedlozi dopuna i izmjena odredbi Pomorskog zakonika o pomorskom privilegiju koji su adekvatno primjenjivi i na zračni privilegij. Prijedlozi dopuna i izmjena usmjereni su prema reguliranju upisa priznatog i stečenog te osporenog pomorskog privlegija do pokretanja postupka ovrhe, nakon donošenja rješenja o ovrsi i privremene mjere zaustavljanja broda, a najkasnije na ročištu za prodaju broda. Predložena rješenja odstupaju od trenutno važećih odredbi hrvatskoga i poredbenoga prava.

Analiza odredaba trećeg dijela Zakona o obveznim i stvarnopravnim odnosima u zračnom prometu o stvarnopravnim odnosima u pogledu zrakoplova, posebno odredaba članaka 140. –166. Glave II. (založno pravo na zrakoplovu), dovodi do spoznaje o potrebi dodatne regulacije instituta založnog prava na zrakoplovu. Vidljive su određene nejasnoće i nedorečenosti u odredbama pojedinih članaka, pa su prijedlozi dopuna i izmjena prioritetno usmjereni na formalnopravni izričaj kojim bi se otklonili uočeni nedostaci. Po pitanju dobrovoljnog založnog prava (hipoteke) utvrđenog odredbama čl. 146. – 152., radi uspostavljanja potpunijeg i efikasnijeg pravnog odnosa između hipotekarnog vjerovnika i dužnika, prijedlozima dopuna i izmjena strankama hipotekarnog ugovora dale bi se šire ovlasti nego što ih imaju po trenutno važećim odredbama. U dijelu odredbi čl. 157. – 166. o zakonskom založnom pravu, prijedlozi dopuna i izmjena usmjereni su na utvrđivanje cjelovite i jasne klasifikacije zakonskih založnih tražbina na zrakoplovu, te na rješavanje nekih pravnih dvojbi. Tako uspostavljenom zakonskom regulativom brisali bi se članci koji u novim okolnostima gube pravni smisao. Dopune i izmjene odredbi Glave II. Zakona o obveznim i stvarnopravnim odnosima u zračnom prometu o založnom pravu na zrakoplovu potrebno je provesti po uzoru na zakonske odredbe poredbenog prava u pogledu zrakoplova i adekvatne cjelovito utvrđene materije Pomorskog zakonika o založnom pravu na brodu, jer su brod i zrakoplov globalno povezani sličnim imovinskopravnim karakteristikama i stvarnopravnom zakonodavnom regulativom.

This article examines the leeway the TRIPS Agreement grants to WTO Members to define their own standard of patentability in the field of pharmaceutical inventions. To this end, the contribution adopts an anecdotal approach: instead of abstractly analyzing the boundaries set by Article 27 TRIPS, it takes up specific questions related to patentability raised before national judges where the TRIPS consistency of a domestic practice or interpretation has been an issue. In this context, this article answers the questions whether or not Article 27 TRIPS allows for (i) denying composition claims for naturally occurring substances; (ii) ruling out absolute product protection in all or specific technical fields, and excluding from patent protection (iii) new forms of known substances when they do not show an improvement in known efficacy and (iv) new uses of known substances. The conclusions drawn on the above-mentioned issues are relevant for several reasons. De lege lata, they will outline the interpretative leeway national judges enjoy when applying their domestic patent laws. De lege ferenda, they will serve as examples for the flexibility WTO members have in reforming internal legislation to pursue specific national policy in the field of public health and pharmaceutical innovation. One might add that just because the TRIPS Agreement grants a specific flexibility to WTO members does not mean that in all instances it is sound policy to make use of it, or use it in a particular way. Whether and when this is the case depends on the aims and the context of a possible reform of the domestic legislation. A last section hence explores possible purposes and effects of some of the measures addressed.

THE ROLE OF THE EMPLOYER IN REALIZING THE RIGHTS OF EMPLOYEES RELATED TO PARENTHOODOver the last ten years, the Labor Code has signifi cantly expanded employees’ rights related to parenthood, and thus the role of the employer in the fi eld of their implementation has changed fundamentally.The employer remains obliged to fulfi ll the employee’s basic rights enumerated in the Labour Code as a parent. However, the Polish legislator excessively burdens the employer with the role of the sole contractor of these general social principles related to the protection of motherhood and family, which causes a clear upset in the implementation of the constitutional obligations of the state towards its citizens.Looking at individual stages of employment from the period of pregnancy, in which protection is particularly strong, through the obligation to exercise parental leave and obligations imposed on the employer to employ an employee after taking leave, on protection during the period of custody, these are clearly noticeable limitations and burdens for the employer. The burden imposed on a particular employer often remains completely disproportionate to its capabilities. The employer bears the costs of social policy, which should be implemented by the state, thus it is fulfi lling the role of the guarantor in securing social interests. The solutions adopted by the Polish legislator stand in clear opposition to the regulation of international law.The burdens currently imposed on the employer resulting from the provisions of the Labor Code could be implemented to a large extent by relevant public insurance systems. De lege ferenda, the obligation to protect motherhood and the family as a constitutional social obligation should be carried out jointly by the state and the employer. De lege lata, the lack of proportionality is clearly visible in the regulations in force and it signifi cantly limits the principle of economic freedom and employer’s property, in particular in relation to small entrepreneurs.

SHORT LIMITATION PERIODS IN CROSS-BORDER LIABILITY CASES NO SOLUTION YET (DE LEGE LATA) BUT FIVE OPTIONS FOR ACTION (DE LEGE FERENDA) was published in Volume XXII Yearbook of Private International Law – 2020/2021 on page 405.

The legal framework of telecommunications regulation is about to change. This is due to the reform package which the Commission submitted in November 2007. The European Parliament and the Council of Ministers are still to approve. There is ongoing political debate. Unfortunately, it does not cover the crucial issue: is the sector-specific ex ante telecommunications regulation still justified after ten years of liberalisation and a partly dramatic evolution towards competition? The author replies in the negative from a historical, a regulatory policy and an analytical perspective. De lege lata, the three-criteria test, if applied correctly, induces this outcome. De lege ferenda, a sunset rule, if need be a qualified one, would be useful.

The article explores the dynamic concept of non-personal data and the regulatory approaches within the EU legal framework. De lege lata, this article critically assesses the issues arising from Regulation (EU) 2018/1807 on the framework on the free flow of non-personal data, focusing on the definition of non-personal data and the data porting principle. While the legislator’s shift from ownership to control is endorsed, the relevance of a framework targeting solely non-personal data is questioned in light of data protection concerns. De lege ferenda, this article submits that a comprehensive approach should broadly consider overcoming binary data categorisations. For the purposes of the FFD Regulation’s evaluation, evidence-based reflections are suggested. Keywords: non-personal data; free flow of data; GDPR; data portability; data ownership

The analysis in the current chapter advances the discussion on the interrelationship between space debris, active debris removal and space traffic management, and on how they must necessarily be conceptualised and implemented should the international community prefer to safeguard the sustainability of mankind’s space activities. The first section juxtaposes the state of a number of regulatory developments on the above issues with a cursory look at the inescapable physical circumstances and processes surrounding space activities and space debris, in order to derive a number of fundamental implications for the creation of an effective future regulatory system. What emerges, above all, is the need for suitably tailored, adaptive and largely unprecedented international legal ‘machinery’ based on a common construction of the risk attending space activities. De lege lata and de lege ferenda, the chapter then briefly situates and qualifies the issues under general international law and the jurisprudence of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in the context of international obligations to prevent transboundary harm—an area of international environmental law notably concerned with risk and its collective management—before finally concluding.

This article discusses the changes in the provisions of Article 1835 and Article 981 § 1 of the Civil Procedure Code, which relate to the remuneration and reimbursement of expenses to which the mediator is entitled, introduced by the 2023 amendment. De lege lata, the analysed regulations should be assessed positively in principle. As a result of the modifications introduced, it has been possible, to a large extent, to eliminate the relevant confusions related to the interpretation of these provisions, particularly those arising from the 2019 amendment. Consequently, the structures adopted by the legislator under the 2023 amendment have the potential to significantly promote mediation as an effective method of resolving civil disputes, offering a viable alternative to common courts. De lege ferenda, however, it is appropriate to advocate for an increase in the mediator’s fees based on the Regulation of the Minister of Justice of 2016, which applies to court-referred mediation in civil proceedings.

The termination of lease contracts of residential and roofed business premises has been regulated under the 347th article of Turkish Code of Obligations numbered 6098. First paragraph of the article regulates the termination of lease contracts for residences (dwelling houses) and roofed business premises (working places) concluded for a limited duration (fixed term contracts). Pursuant to the first paragraph of Article 347, at the fixed term lease contract of residential and roofed business premises, the contract is deemed to be extended for one year under the same conditions unless the tenant gives notice at least fifteen days prior to the expiration of the contract. The lessor cannot terminate the contract based on the expiry of the contract period. However, at the end of the ten-year extension period, the lessor may terminate the contract without any justification grounds, by giving at least three months’ notice before the end of each extension period. It is controversial when the ten-year extension period will begin and when the lessor can use the right to terminate at the earliest. In addition, in cases where the lease term is agreed for a period of more than ten years, when the lessor can use the right of termination, is a matter to be evaluated separately. In this study, in terms of the termination of fixed term lease contracts for residential and roofed business premises, the issue of the beginning of the ten-year extension period and the earliest time that the lessor can notify the end of the contract for termination is evaluated in the context of opinions and judicial practice. Finally, our opinion regarding the subject as de lege lata and de lege ferenda is explained.

International law implications of the detection of extraterrestrial intelligent signals

The power of a particular parliamentary chamber is determined by its competences, with law-making being most important. In Poland, the adoption of a bicameral solution was not without controversy. There are many theses in the doctrine that puts into question the adopted order, proposing an attempt to remodel the system. The present study represents an attempt to compare the legislative function of the Senate of Poland, Czech Republic and Romania. The research hypothesis is that the Polish second chamber's competences are most limited in this respect. The choice of these countries is led by their geographical proximity -they are located in Central and Eastern Europe and share a common history. Besides, they also have similar cultural links often. These countries also have