Precarious half-lives: silencing toxic legacies in a former uranium mining town in Kyrgyzstan

In the high mountain valleys of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, gravity-flow irrigation systems support the production of grains, fodder, vegetables, herbs, and fruits as well as wood for fuel and construction purposes. In the Soviet and post-Soviet periods, major changes in the organization of society and agriculture have occurred which, when combined with the effects of population growth and outmigration in recent decades, have fundamentally altered the normative and organizational arrangements that had sustained hill irrigation in the past. This article presents 2 case studies, one from the Alaikuu area of Tar Valley, Osh Province, Alai mountain range, southern Kyrgyzstan, and the other from the upper Shokhdara Valley in Gorno-Badakhshan, Pamir mountain range, eastern Tajikistan. A combination of rights and obligations form the foundation of self-managed offtake systems, the rules for which reflect existing social relationships. The importance of authority to the effective management of these syste...

This thesis examines why and how plant protection issues are embedded in political, economic and social contexts. It analyses the domain of plant protection in Kazakhstan under two different socio-economic and political formations, namely the Soviet period before 1991 and the post-Soviet period thereafter. The study of plant protection in a country in transition demonstrates how the wider political and socio-economic structures shape this particular field of agrarian science and practice. The thesis illustrates how Integrated Pest Management (IPM)/ecology-based pest-control approaches were broadly developed and practised in the USSR, including Kazakhstan. It identifies a shift from a knowledge system aiming at sustainable pest control in the Soviet era to an exclusive focus on pesticides in post-1991 Kazakhstan. This shift – which contradicts the global trend towards sustainability – leads to the central question of this dissertation: Why did such a shift occur in Kazakhstan after 1991? This thesis argues that the transformation of the agrarian structure, the destruction of the state-led/public organization of pest control, the neglect of research and extension and the aggressive promotion campaigns of the pesticide industry changed the plant protection perspectives in Kazakhstan. This dissertation describes how, and explains why, thinking about pest control changed within the wider knowledge system, including farming, research, extension and policymaking. As a result, essential elements of sustainable pest-management approaches were abandoned in Kazakhstan after 1991. In conclusion, this thesis points to an urgent need to rethink and rebuild the role of the government in pest control. Without stronger policy, less afraid to embrace positive aspects of the former Soviet plant protection system, highly destructive pest organisms will continue to threaten national food security, and indiscriminate and injudicious pesticide use will continue to pose considerable hazards for human health and the environment. The study shows that plant protection is more than just ‘getting rid of pests’ at the farm level. Pest-control issues are deeply embedded in political–economic–social contexts, through which the development and use of ecologically sustainable approaches and collective action for pest control can be either promoted or hindered. The government of Kazakhstan has a key function in supporting this long-term endeavour and creating conducive conditions for this to happen, as this will ultimately contribute to a more sustainable system of agricultural production and thus benefit society as a whole.

Tremendous urban transformations in two Central Asian cities since the early 20th century have resulted in remaking the subjectivity and worldview of its inhabitants. This article explores the connections between urban materiality and human subjectivity, and argues that, while their relationship is complex and mediated by specific socio-historical processes, the former can play a consequential role in producing the latter. The study examines ethnic Uzbeks in the cities of Osh and Jalalabat, located today in post-Soviet Kyrgyzstan. The analysis traces three historical moments-the Soviet period, the 1990s, and the first decade of the 2000s - when shifts in urbann material conditions were understood to carry great stakes in the shaping of the personhood of city dwellers. This insight may have a bearing on the possible future resolution of the serious inter-ethnic conflict between Kyrgyzs and Uzbeks in those cities, which erupted in 1990 and 2010.

minating in thepath-breaking S.B. 100,a legisla tive resolution to McCall's famous admonition to "come visit us again and again_But for heaven s sake don't come here to live."Despite repeated challenges, S.B. 100 remained,Robbins says, the nation's only truly comprehensive sys tem for managing growth. Even at this focused level,Robbins's history is selective; he treatsonly inpassing the recre ational forms of environmental politics that emerged inwilderness and wild-river protec tion and in"green city"campaigns. This reflects his understanding that economic imprints dominate the landscape. While true, this nar row explanatory structureneglects the cultural factors thatmade Oregon unique nationwide in its commitment to quality of life.Still, this may be theonlyway tohandle the complicated mix of global economic forces and statewide politics, which Robbins does brilliantly and with surprising balance, given his passionate commitment to the environmental integrityof his home state. Landscapes ofConflict ends as itbegins ? on an ambivalent note? with declining support for land-use planning, rivers still laced with toxins, and timberharvestsmoving toward an uncertain future. What worries Robbins most is a generation ofOregonians unfamiliar with these earlier struggles and no charismatic Tom McCall to invoke their legacy.Indeed, thisfear is sharedby environmentalists across thenation: if sense ofplace determines our collective respon sibility for the land, then Robbins's concerns ring true.Yet, history teaches us toview trends like these as historically contingent. In the long run,Oregonians will stand by their landscapes of promise, even though, as Robbins shows, protecting themwill not be without its gains and losses. Western Lives: A Biographical History of the American West Edited by Richard W. Etulain. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, 2004. Photographs, maps, index. 454 Pages. $23.95 paper. Reviewed by Peter J. Blodgett Huntington Library, SanMarino, California INTENDED "PRIMARILY FOR STUDENTS and general readers,"Western Lives offers"a his toryof the region through illuminative livesof several emblematic men and women" (p. 3,1). Editor Richard Etulain has assembled a distin guished group of fifteenhistorians who have selected an eclectic listof thirty-fourindividu als (and one mythical figure). Upon dividing the history of theNorth American West into threeparts, Etulain releases his authors to their individual tasks. Beginning with the era of initial contacts between North America s indigenous peoples and new arrivals from Europe, the volume's firstfive essays delve deeply into exploration, colonization, conquest, and resistance. Gary Clayton Anderson's portrayal of Wakantapi of theDakota and JuanSabeata of the Jumano in the seventeenth century contrasts nicely with JohnKessell's depiction of the Spanish frontier of Juan Bautista de Anza (father and son) in the eighteenth.William Lang, following the trails of explorers George Vancouver, David Thompson, and Lewis and Clark, highlights the juxtaposition ofvarious imperial agendas in the northwest corner of the continent,while Cheryl Foote and Barton Barbour, inprofiling Stephen F.Austin and do?a Tules, and Jedediah Smith 670 OHQ vol. 106, no. 4 andMarcus andNarcissaWhitman, respectively, elucidate theentanglements ofpeoples asNative Americans and Euro-Americans collided in the early nineteenth century. Focusing on the second half of the nine teenth century, the next five essays chart the intricacies of cultural encounters, the arduous struggles over possession and development of land and the evolvingmythology of thefrontier experience.Through theunlikelyduo ofDenver philanthropist Elizabeth Byers and Mormon apostate Samuel Brannan, Anne Hyde examines the enduring influence of theMormon search for refugeand theminer's pursuit of riches on thedevelopment of thepost-CivilWar West. The livesof Mariano Vallejo andMar?a Amparo Ruiz de Burton, as observed byRichard Griswold del Castillo, reflectthe costs imposed on the West's prior inhabitants and theirways of life.Elliott West untangles thefabricof resistance, defeat,and survival woven by indigenousAmericans such as Sarah Winnemucca andChief Joseph. R.Douglas Hurt examines the strategiesadopted by cattle barons such asHenryMiller and Charles Lux and homesteaders such as Rachel Calof and Nannie Alderson in tryingtobend the land to theirpur poses. Against thebackdrop ofBuffaloBillCody, Annie Oakley, and the "wild West show," Glenda Riley investigatesthestoriesthrough whichmany Americans triedtomake sense of the West at the end of the century. To shed lighton the rapidly changing char acter of the West in the twentieth century, the final essays trace the convergence of hopes and...

Reviews Landscapes ofConflict: The Oregon Story, 1940-2000 ByWilliam G.Robbins University ofWashington Press, Seattle, 2004. Illustrations, maps, notes, bibliography, index. 416 pages. $35.00 cloth. Reviewed by Richard W. Judd University of Maine, Orono Ever since David Brower taught us to thinkglobally and act locally,environmental historians have pondered the relation between politics of place and the national themes that make up the environmental movement. In his pioneering Beauty, Health, and Permanence (1987), Samuel P. Hays addressed the history of environmentalism as a national phenom enon, but in facthis book is mostly a surveyof place-specific campaigns. By contrast,Robbins begins at the state level and follows the ripples of political dissent outward into the national mainstream. With roughly half of Oregon's land base in the federal domain, this seems an appropriate place to begin exploring relations between the global and the local. Robbins began his history of theOregon environmentwith Landscapes of Promise (1997), which ends at 1940. Picking up from there, Landscapes ofConflict asserts the same bold themes: conservation is a clash of essentially economic interests;Edenic visions and tech nological optimism are dashed on the rocks of corporate resistance and a spiral of unintended consequences. Although Robbins never clearly explains his methodology, his book stands as a model for doing environmental history on a different scale and with differentpremises. His focus on one state provides an integrated narrative of the environmentalmovement and clarifiestherelationbetween seemingly separate battles over fish,forests,and other values. Robbins begins with Oregon's optimistic outlook at the end of World War II and distills from thisexpansionarymood a sense of anxiety brought on by environmental problems linked to agriculture, suburbs, logging,and pollution. Threatened by a gauntlet ofdams and irrigation works, salmon declined in the postwar years, becoming the most visible indicatorofOregon s coming environmental battles.Agriculture and forestryfollowed similar trajectories.Bolstered by rural electrification,irrigationprojects, land grant research, and new chemical applicants, farmersfaced a bright future,but field-burning resulted inpublic protestsand awkward compro mises. Rapid timber liquidation under theguise of encouraging more vigorous second-growth forestsbrought environmental and economic dislocations. In both industries, concern about chemical sprayingmirrored national trends following publication ofRachel Carson's Silent Spring (1962).Despite theseand otherproblems, agricultural experts and foresters maintained a steady faith in technological solutions. Robbins gives thishistory a human quality by weaving it around two legendary figures: Senator Richard Neuberger and Governor Tom McCall. Both moved into politics following careers in journalism, and both gained national reputations for their environmental stands. Neither was absolutely consistent, however, and Robbins casts thisambivalence as a central feature of Oregon's environmental record. Suc cessbrought national recognition,but problems persist, a legacy of land and water use over the past 150years. Robbins ends with a discussion ofOregons response tounplanned growth,cul Reviews 669 minating in thepath-breaking S.B. 100,a legisla tive resolution to McCall's famous admonition to "come visit us again and again_But for heaven s sake don't come here to live."Despite repeated challenges, S.B. 100 remained,Robbins says, the nation's only truly comprehensive sys tem for managing growth. Even at this focused level,Robbins's history is selective; he treatsonly inpassing the recre ational forms of environmental politics that emerged inwilderness and wild-river protec tion and in"green city"campaigns. This reflects his understanding that economic imprints dominate the landscape. While true, this nar row explanatory structureneglects the cultural factors thatmade Oregon unique nationwide in its commitment to quality of life.Still, this may be theonlyway tohandle the complicated mix of global economic forces and statewide politics, which Robbins does brilliantly and with surprising balance, given his passionate commitment to the environmental integrityof his home state. Landscapes ofConflict ends as itbegins ? on an ambivalent note? with declining support for land-use planning, rivers still laced with toxins, and timberharvestsmoving toward an uncertain future. What worries Robbins most is a generation ofOregonians unfamiliar with these earlier struggles and no charismatic Tom McCall to invoke their legacy.Indeed, thisfear is sharedby environmentalists across thenation: if sense ofplace determines our collective respon sibility for the land, then Robbins's concerns ring true.Yet, history teaches us toview trends like these as historically...

The subject of this research is the information potential of the source complex of archival documents dedicated to the history of Sevastopol Central Research Institute “Compass” in the Central State Archive of Scientific and Technical Documentation of St. Petersburg. Since Sevastopol was not only an industrial, but also a scientific and technological center, the engineering departments lead unique developments, which were later implemented in various sectors nationwide. Both, enterprises and engineering departments were integrated into a unified all-Union system, which justifies using not only the city archive, but also central archives to find sources on the history of industrial development of Sevastopol during the Soviet period. This article is dedicated to determination and detailed analysis of the documents related to the history of Sevastopol Central Research Institute “Compass”. The authors dwell on the types of the preserved departmental documents, provide explicit examples, and analyze the peculiarities of documentation. The work is based on the range previously unpublished archival documents. The conclusion is made that materials from the fund of the Central Research Institute “Compass” of the Central State Archive of Scientific and Technical Documentation of St. Petersburg demonstrates the place and role of Sevastopol branch within the system of this organization, unlike the local documents stored the city archive of Sevastopol, which are focused on the local tasks and problems, and do not fully reflect the structural issues of the entire Scientific Production Association. Analyzing the extracted archival information on the Scientific Production Association “Compass”, the authors conclude that both the association itself and the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry of the Soviet Union were focused on strengthening integration and interrelation of enterprises both within the Central Research Institute “Compass “ and industry as a whole, which manifested in establishment of the Council of the Scientific Production Association “Compass”; its documents are also stored in the fund.

Признавая необходимость непрерывного образования учи­телей, система повышения квалификации была создана еще в советский период, Знания и компетентность современ­но­го учителя являются показателем эффективности про­цес­са профессионального развития. Работа учреждений, по­вы­шаю­щих образование учителей, очень важна в обеспечении этого показателя. Чтобы улучшить образование, эти учреж­де­ния должны первыми принять изменения, происходящие в стране, реализовать их и донести до учителей в ходе курса. В данной статье описывается состояние образования учителей в советское время, изменения в условиях независимости и в по­следнее время. При этом рассматривается пути решения проблем повышения квалификации учителей. Педагогдордун квалификациясын жогорулатуу систе­ма­­сы мугалимдердин үзгүлтүксүз билим алуусунун зарыл­ды­гы­­­нын бар экендиги таанылып совет мезгилинде эле тү­зүл­гөн. Ал эми бүгүнкү заманбап мугалимдин билими жана ком­пе­­тент­­­­түү­лүгү кесиптик өнүгүү процессинин натый­жалу­у­лу­гу­нун көрсөткүчү болуп саналат. Алардын бул көрсөткүчүн кам­­сыз кылууда мугалимдердин билимин өркүндөтүүчү ме­ке­ме­­лер­­­­­­дин иши абдан маанилүү. Аталган мекемелер билим бе­рүү­­нү жакшыртуу максатында өлкөдө болуп жаткан өзг­ө­рүү­лөр­­дү алгачкылардан болуп кабыл алып, реализациялап жана курс мезгилинде мугалимдерге жайылтуусу кажет. Бул мака­ла­да мугалимдердин билимин өркүндөтүүнүн совет мез­ги­лин­де­ги абалы жана эгемендүүлүктүн шартындагы өзгө­рүү­лөр, акыр­кы мезгилдердеги жанылануулар баяндалат. Аны менен бир­ге педагогдордун квалификациясын жогорулатуу­да­гы ма­се­­­лелерди чечүүнун айрым жолдору изделет. The system of improving the qualifications of teachers was established during the Soviet period, recognizing the need for con­ti­nuous education of teachers. The knowledge and competence of a modern teacher is an index of the effectiveness of the professional development process. And the work of institutions that improve the education of teachers is very important in providing them with this indicator. In order to improve education, these institutions should be the first to accept the changes taking place in the country, im­ple­ment them and convey them to teachers during the course. This article describes the state of teacher education in Soviet times, changes in the conditions of independence and recent updates. At the same time, the ways of solving the problems of teacher training are considered.

This article examines complex patterns of interaction between human settlement and the environment in the industrialised Russian north. I analyse how new mining towns, built during the Soviet period, were located and integrated into the environment. Residents have participated in the industrial processing of natural resources in the work domain, also developing a strong emotional attachment to the natural environments while spending leisure time around the cities. In both perception of physical space and ideas about place, the main dividing principle is between the spheres of work and leisure.

Book reviewed in this articles: Asia's Next Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization. By Alice M. Amsden. Fisheries development Economics of Fishery Management in the Pacific Islands Region. Edited by H. Campbell; K. Menz and G. Waugh. Regional co‐operation ASEAN Industrial Co‐operation: Future Perspectives and an Alternative Scheme. Edited by Chee Peng Lim and Jang‐Won Sun. China's Social Economic Zones The Political Economy of China's Special Economic Zones. By George T. Crane. Australia's relations with Asia Australia and the Northeast Asian Ascendancy. By Ross Garnaut. Economic success in East Asia Achieving Industrialization in East Asia. Edited by Helen Hughes. Paradoxes in PNG economy Growth, Structural Change and Economic Policy in Papua New Guinea: Implications for Agriculture. By Frank G. Jarrett and Kym Anderson. History of banking in East Asia The Hong Kong Bank in the Period of Imperialism and War, 1895–1918. Volume II of the History of the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation. By Frank H. H. King with David J. S. King and Catherine E. King. Mercantilism vs. classical economics National Economics. By Alejandro Lichauco. Thai economic history Economic Development of Thailand, 1850–1950: Response to the Challenge of the World Economy. By Sompop Manarungsan. Predictable catastrophe City on the Rocks: Hong Kong's Uncertain Future. By Kevin Rafferty. Mouldering Pearl: Hong Kong at the Crossroads. By Felix Patrikeef. Development of Singapore's economy Management of Success: The Moulding of Modern Singapore. Edited by Kernial Singh Sandhu and Paul Wheatley. Economics of food Food Price Policy in Asia: A Comparative Study. Edited by Terry Sicular. Development economics Proceedings of the World Bank Annual Conference on Development Economics 1989.

It is the aim of this article to analyse the worship of the dead in the context of the post-Soviet religious revival in Russia. The paper focuses on certain interrelated manifestations of worshipping the special dead, martyrs and heroes, in which both religious and secular institutions are involved. Activities in canonisation of new martyrs who shone out during the Soviet period also imply the recovery of graves and the identification of the bodies of the (new) saints. They are similar to another secular form of politics of memory: the reburials of soldiers who perished during the Second World War. The physical remains of the anonymous dead are a cause of frustration and ambiguity. In both cases (the sacred and the secular ones), the aim is to achieve personalisation through the identification of graves and remains. It includes both a physical process and a symbolic operation through which the bodies obtain the status and the aura of martyrs and heroes. It is a strategy of reconciling irreconcilable historical legacies and also a tool to positively reformulate traumatic experiences of the past. In doing so, the Orthodox project of constructing memory successfully contributes to the larger societal project of elaborating a positive vision of the past.

Central Asia’s 18th and 19th centuries marked the definitive end of the nomadic empires that characterized the region’s geopolitics for over three millennia before the advent of colonialism. Although it is open to debate which polity was the last “empire of the steppe,” a strong case can be made for the Junghar confederacy, which contested the Qing Empire of China for dominance in Eurasia in the 17th and 18th centuries—ultimately unsuccessfully. The Junghars owed their early success to a combination of new gunpowder technology and nomadic military organization, and the fragmented city-states that emerged from Nadir Shah Afshar’s empire (1736–1747)—such as Bukhara, Khiva, and Khoqand—relied even more on musketeer infantry units composed of individuals without ties to the local Turkic military elite. The emergent fiscal-military states that characterized Central Asia on the eve of colonial conquest were thus quite novel in terms of structural power dynamics, yet thoroughly Turko-Perso-Islamic in terms of symbolism, law, and patrimonialism. This period also witnessed what was in many ways the apex of Persianate high culture, building on traditions with roots stretching back to the Timurid period and earlier. Sufism in all of its forms became mainstream. Intellectual elites were polymathic, simultaneously mastering jurisprudence, poetry, medicine, occult sciences, and more. Vernacularization, particularly in literary Central Asian Turki, deepened these currents and carried them to new audiences. The new city-state dynasties competed with one another to build up educational centers to support all of these cultural forms. Many of these cultural, social, and even political forms persisted under colonialism, even as the pace of change sped up. Some of the precolonial dynasties persevered under indirect colonial rule. Sufi brotherhoods and Islamic learning expanded, only to be snuffed out or transformed in the Soviet period. Only at the very end of the 19th century did colonial modernity—in the form of large-scale cotton cultivation, new understandings of national identity, print culture, and steam-propelled transport—begin to make significant inroads.

The history of the development of the nuclear industry in the former great power – the USSR – is inextricably linked with the uranium deposits of the Central Asian countries: Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakhstan, which were then part of the USSR, where a powerful uranium raw material base was created. As a result of uranium ore mining and processing in the above-mentioned Central Asian countries, large volumes of radioactive tailings, dumps and low-grade ore dumps have formed on their territory. The purpose of this review article is to summarize the available materials on the history of the formation and current state of uranium tailings in the Central Asian countries. Since the mid-1940 years, uranium mining and processing activities have been carried out in Central Asia, particularly in the mountainous regions above the Syrdarya River and the Fergana Valley, where the Kyrgyzstan Republic, the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Republic of Tajikistan and the Republic of Uzbekistan are located. In the 1990 years, following the collapse of the Soviet Union, these activities largely ceased, leaving behind a uranium legacy of abandoned uranium mining and processing sites with waste rock and low-grade ore dumps and tailings ponds. There are 48 tailings storage facilities located within their territory, containing approximately 450 million tons of radioactive waste. Of these, 3 tailings storage facilities with a capacity of 246.2 million tons are located in Kazakhstan, 33 tailings storage facilities with a capacity of 77.3 million tons are in Kyrgyzstan, 10 tailings storage facilities with a capacity of 55 million tons are in Tajikistan, and 1 tailings storage facility with a capacity of 4 million tons is in Uzbekistan. In total, 812.6 million tons of waste from former uranium production, including dumps and off-balance ores, are located on the territory of Central Asian countries. Due to the fact that the technologies for mining and processing uranium ores in the countries of Central Asia were developed by the same research and design organizations within the USSR Ministry of Medium Machine Building, the characteristics of the uranium legacy in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan are identical. The study of the radioecological state of the Central Asian countries shows that reclamation and other health measures, which are common to all countries, have not been fully implemented for many radioactive tailings. Based on the results of the analysis, practical recommendations are given for strengthening coordination and interaction for their comprehensive solution.

Dramatic alterations to the natural environment due to human activity have produced a permanent rupture in the Earth system; the relative stable epoch of the Holocene has given way to a volatile Anthropocene. Acceptance of these claims means that we now live in this altered physical reality, inviting us to rethink how we conceptualise disasters. Yet, disaster scholars have been hesitant to apply the Anthropocene label and to acknowledge the profound changes that it can bring to the study of disasters. This paper queries whether this label is a necessary adage or unnecessary baggage for disaster studies by examining the possibilities and the challenges associated with engaging with the Anthropocene. An analysis of the concepts, causes, and consequences of disasters reveals how the Anthropocene provides, as the very least, a theoretical heuristic for challenging linear temporal assumptions, the epistemological status of uncertainty, and the location of agency in disaster studies.

COVID-19 is proving to be the long awaited 'big one': a pandemic capable of bringing societies and economies to their knees. There is an urgent need to examine how COVID-19 - as a health and development crisis - unfolded the way it did it and to consider possibilities for post-pandemic transformations and for rethinking development more broadly. Drawing on over a decade of research on epidemics, we argue that the origins, unfolding and effects of the COVID-19 pandemic require analysis that addresses both structural political-economic conditions alongside far less ordered, 'unruly' processes reflecting complexity, uncertainty, contingency and context-specificity. This structural-unruly duality in the conditions and processes of pandemic emergence, progression and impact provides a lens to view three key challenge areas. The first is how scientific advice and evidence are used in policy, when conditions are rigidly 'locked in' to established power relations and yet so uncertain. Second is how economies function, with the COVID-19 crisis having revealed the limits of a conventional model of economic growth. The third concerns how new forms of politics can become the basis of reshaped citizen-state relations in confronting a pandemic, such as those around mutual solidarity and care. COVID-19 demonstrates that we face an uncertain future, where anticipation of and resilience to major shocks must become the core problematic of development studies and practice. Where mainstream approaches to development have been top down, rigid and orientated towards narrowly-defined economic goals, post-COVID-19 development must have a radically transformative, egalitarian and inclusive knowledge and politics at its core.

This paper presents a benefit/cost analysis for different alternatives considered as remedial actions to reduce potential health hazards associated with radioactive uranium tailings remaining at a dismantled mill in Salt Lake City, Utah, U.S.A. The analysis was carried out in two phases. Phase one considered: (1) the health hazards associated with each of the alternatives over various future time periods; (2) parametric benefit/cost analyses using various monetary values of human life and real estate; and (3) discount and inflation rates. The analysis was undertaken with and without including opportunity costs. Phase two focused on non-quantifiable constraints that had not been covered in the first phase, and eliminated nil but three of the alternatives.