Power, Discourses, and Conservation in Cabo Pulmo National Park, Mexico

No-take marine reserves are effective management tools used to restore fish biomass and community structure in areas depleted by overfishing. Cabo Pulmo National Park (CPNP) was created in 1995 and is the only well enforced no-take area in the Gulf of California, Mexico, mostly because of widespread support from the local community. In 1999, four years after the establishment of the reserve, there were no significant differences in fish biomass between CPNP (0.75 t ha−1 on average) and other marine protected areas or open access areas in the Gulf of California. By 2009, total fish biomass at CPNP had increased to 4.24 t ha−1 (absolute biomass increase of 3.49 t ha−1, or 463%), and the biomass of top predators and carnivores increased by 11 and 4 times, respectively. However, fish biomass did not change significantly in other marine protected areas or open access areas over the same time period. The absolute increase in fish biomass at CPNP within a decade is the largest measured in a marine reserve worldwide, and it is likely due to a combination of social (strong community leadership, social cohesion, effective enforcement) and ecological factors. The recovery of fish biomass inside CPNP has resulted in significant economic benefits, indicating that community-managed marine reserves are a viable solution to unsustainable coastal development and fisheries collapse in the Gulf of California and elsewhere.

The seasonal variability of gelatinous zooplankton (siphonophores, medusae, and thaliaceans) abundance was investigated at Cabo Pulmo National Park (CPNP) from weekly zooplankton samples collected throughout 2014. The Gulf of California had prolonged warming during 2009-2019, with 2014 as the anomalously warm year preceding El Niño 2015-2016 compared to the 2003-2020 SST time series. Gelatinous zooplankton accounted <1% of the entire zooplankton community abundance at CPNP during 2014, suggesting a low influence of predation pressure upon their zooplanktonic and micronekton preys. Siphonophores (57%), thaliaceans (42%), and medusae (1%) were present throughout the year. The abundance of gelatinous zooplankton had a significant negative association with sea surface temperature and a positive association with sea surface chlorophyll-a concentration and velocity and direction of the wind, increasing their abundance during October after the hurricane season. The gelatinous zooplankton species assemblage at the coastal CPNP was similar but less abundant than the gelatinous zooplankton species assemblage observed in the oceanic region of the southern Gulf of California during summer 2014. Tropical species Diphyes dispar, Abylopsis tetragona, Chelophyes contorta, and Thalia spp. numerically dominated the gelatinous zooplankton community associated with a regional heatwave period recorded during 2014. A high proportion of tropical zooplankton indicates that mesotrophic conditions sustain the current high biomass and diversity of nektonic and benthonic planktophagous fauna inhabiting CPNP. However, prolonged warming events might decrease zooplankton biomass in the southern region of the Gulf of California in the future.

Orcas (Orcinus orca) have a worldwide distribution and as apex predators feed on a wide variety of prey, including marine mammals, seabirds, sea turtles, cephalopods, teleost fish and elasmobranchs. Historically, there have been few observations of orca predation on large elasmobranch species nor are they commonly identified in the stomach contents of deceased orcas. In recent years there has been an increase in observational records of orca predation, such as on white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) in South Africa, which could indicate that elasmobranchs serve a greater importance in their diet than previously considered. These events are often documented by members of the public due to the development and affordability of innovative cameras, including the use of the drones (unoccupied aerial vehicles). Here we describe new predator-prey interactions between orcas and large shark species in Cabo Pulmo National Park (CPNP), a small no-take marine protected area located in the Gulf of California. In this paper, we were able to successfully identify individuals from the described orca pods in the region; specifically, the same individuals hunting sharks over a period of nearly two years. We discuss the potential implications of these new ecological interactions, given the importance of tourism to sustain the management of CPNP, as cascading impacts have been documented elsewhere in light of orca predations on sharks.

Many studies highlight alternative tourism as a path for sustainable local development in marine protected areas. However appropriate tools to measure the sustainability of tourism development must be implemented. The case of our study is the Cabo Pulmo National Park, located in Baja California Sur, Mexico. The methodology applied is the IUCN sustainability assessment and an analysis of Strengths, Opportunities, Weaknesses and Threats (SWOT), based on a comprehensive review of statistics and documents, and on an opinion survey of the main stakeholders and key players. The analysis clearly shows that there are elements for sustainability based on alternative tourism. Nevertheless, to achieve this desirable model of development some constraints need to be overcome. Based on our analysis, we underscore the main points which should be taken into account in the process of policy making. Albeit oriented to the needs of a specific community, we think that these considerations should be of benefit in constructing sustainable development projects elsewhere, in similar small coastal communities with alternative tourism activities.

PurposeThis study aims to unify phenomena in academic and grey literature into a theory of marine spatial disappropriation based on geopolitical relationships. It is argued that conflict over marine space arises as a result of top-down sovereign control of marine resources, and that the recognition of marine tenure and greater inclusivity in marine development* decision-making would lessen conflict between users, such as artisanal fishermen and ecotourism businesses.Design/methodology/approachA preliminary literature review was conducted, followed by a research study at Cabo Pulmo National Park (CPNP) in Baja California Sur, Mexico.FindingsThe results demonstrate that though CPNP's tenure structure is unique and inclusivity is an element of its management, the degree to which it is practiced is not sufficient to eliminate the chance of eventual disappropriation and ensuing conflict.Practical implicationsThe results of this assessment can be used to strengthen the argument in favour of developing stronger requirements for deliberative democratic decision-making in marine delineation, as well as bolder social performance standards in marine development industries.Originality/valueResearch on socio-environmental revolutions are not new, but the authors contest that they are not alone a sufficient condition for achieving reduced conflict long-term. Instead, the originality of this research lies in its exploration of the importance of customary and formal tenure over marine resources, and its suggestion that this on the whole reduces conflict between exclusive and competing interests. One popular alternative, as demonstrated in numerous cases around the globe, can often be the marginalization of small-scale ocean users through the forceful appropriation of ocean resources.

Community structure and biomass of larval euphausiids and postlarval mysids in relation to anomalous warming events during a weekly time series (2014–2017) at Cabo Pulmo National Park, Mexico

This article employs a long‐term historical and anthropological perspective to examine questions of resilience through a case study of Cabo Pulmo, BCS, Mexico. Using the recent COVID‐19 crisis as a starting point, this article discusses the crises, shocks, booms, and busts that have affected and shaped the people, landscapes, and ecologies of the coastline that now includes Cabo Pulmo. While the community of Cabo Pulmo has been able to withstand several crises and disruptions, and could be considered “resilient” in many senses, I argue that this resilience is ongoing and conditional. Furthermore, the production of this resilience in Cabo Pulmo is highly contingent upon a strategic politics, enacted by the local community, that establishes, protects, and maintains claims to both land and place. Resilience, I argue, can be seen as an ongoing politics and strategic positionality, rooted in historical relations and connections to place, that people seek to create, maintain, and deploy at various scales to mediate and resist periodic shocks, threats, and disruptions.

Hydroacoustic technologies are widely used in fisheries research but few studies have used them to examine the effects of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). We evaluate the efficacy of hydroacoustics to examine the effects of closure to fishing and habitat type on fish populations in the Cabo Pulmo National Park (CPNP), Mexico, and compare these methods to Underwater Visual Censuses (UVC). Fish density, biomass and size were all significantly higher inside the CPNP (299%, 144% and 52% respectively) than outside in non-MPA control areas. These values were much higher when only accounting for the reefs within the CPNP (4715%, 6970% and 97% respectively) highlighting the importance of both habitat complexity and protection from fishing for fish populations. Acoustic estimates of fish biomass over reef-specific sites did not differ significantly from those estimated using UVC data, although acoustic densities were less due to higher numbers of small fish recorded by UVC. There is thus considerable merit in nesting UVC surveys, also providing species information, within hydroacoustic surveys. This study is a valuable starting point in demonstrating the utility of hydroacoustics to assess the effects of coastal MPAs on fish populations, something that has been underutilised in MPA design, formation and management.

Cephalopod paralarval species richness, abundance and size structure were surveyed wduring an anomalous warm period (2014–2017) in the Cabo Pulmo National Park (CPNP), Gulf of California, Mexico. Paralarval taxa from six families (Cranchiidae, Enoploteuthidae, Ommastrephidae, Onychoteuthidae, Argonautidae and Octopodidae) were identified. Most taxa were of tropical biogeographic affinity and oceanic habitats. Highest paralarval richness occurred during spring associated with the northward movement of Tropical Surface Water, while the lowest was recorded during autumn with the southward flow of the Gulf of California water mass. Although 89% of the paralarvae were collected at or close to their species hatching size, none of the paralarval taxa showed a consistent seasonal spawning period. A canonical correspondence analysis showed three taxonomic assemblages: Argonauta and Helicocranchia–Onychoteuthis groups correlated with northward currents and high zooplankton biovolumes (ZB) and SD complex–Abraliopsis group with southward currents and intermediate ZB. Our Helicocranchia pfefferi paralarvae are the first recorded for the Gulf of California. At least 11 cephalopod taxa reproduce in CPNP. This area represents a suitable spawning habitat for cephalopods of socio-economic value.

This study analyzed seasonal and interannual variations in larval fish abundance in Cabo Pulmo National Park (CPNP) from January 2015 to November 2017, encompassing the 2015–2016 El Niño and subsequent thermal relaxation, to examine the impacts of climate-driven events on larval fish abundance, diversity, and species richness in a no-take marine protected area. A total of 166 larval fish taxa were identified, spanning 59 families, 94 genera and 98 species. Dactyloscopidae spp. (relative frequency: 41.7%; abundance: 9.9%), Auxis spp. (32.3%, 7.3%), Abudefduf troschelii (24%, 4.7%), Syacium spp. (17.7%, 3.9%) and Tripterygiidae spp. (12.5%, 2.8%) were the most frequent and numerically dominant taxa, after excluding 13 mesopelagic and bathypelagic species not typically found in CPNP’s shallow waters as adults. Although larval fish assemblages responded to short-term seasonal fluctuations (quarterly and semi-annual), we found that fish larvae abundance, diversity and species richness (independently of their biogeographic and habitat affinity) declined during the 2015–2016 El Niño compared to both the period before El Niño and the subsequent thermal relaxation (June 2016–November 2017). These findings highlight their vulnerability to El Niño-driven oceanographic changes, with implications for the resilience of these populations in the context of a changing climate.

Extended abstract 1. INTRODUCTION Throughout the world, and particularly in advanced countries, second homes are very popular. Similarly, in Iran, in line with the global boost, the number of second homes has increased significantly. Ghamsar district, adjacent to such big cities as Tehran and Kashan, is one of the prominent natural attractions in Iran which accommodates many second home tourists, owing to its clement weather in summer. The characteristics of second home tourism, such as long stays in the region, indicates that some effects manifest themselves more obviously. Therefore, the present research tries to investigate the effects of expansion of second home tourism on the economic, social, environmental and physical structure of the region. 2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Second home tourism is a type of tourism which affects rural and urban societies in various ways, through increasing the number of summer or vacation home owners. It can be said that second home tourism is a continuous, permanent process which can at least help protect the existing jobs in local communities, due to an influx of tourists and the concomitant increased demand. A crucial prerequisite for second home tourism in the local economy is that second homes and places of permanent residence should be distant enough. Varied approaches to tourism, such as mass tourism, economic, geospatial, and society based tourism have been considered. Expansion of tourism with a concurrent attention to environmental, economic and social aspects was proposed so that along with a regard for the environment, economic development and expansion of social justice are also taken into consideration, as none of the previously mentioned approaches is comprehensive and each emphasizes a particular aspect of tourism. 3. METHODOLOGY The present study is an applied - developmental one and uses a descriptive-analytical methodology through survey. Therefore, in addition to library method, field research has also been utilized. The population of the research consists of 9225 residents of Ghamsar. The sample size was determined to be 198, using Cochrane’s formula. The data for the present study was gathered using questionnaires. The validity of the questionnaire was established through face validity. Cronbach’s alpha was used to determine the reliability of the questionnaire. The study presents a model of the consequences of the expansion of second home tourism and its influence on local community’s satisfaction in Ghamsar district, using a survey approach and structural equation modelling. 4. DISCUSSION In the present study, the effects of second home tourism expansion in Ghamsar district was investigated and the degree of its influence on local community’s satisfaction was analyzed. The results of the independent sample t-test reveal that the influence of economic, environmental and physical indicators are statistically significant and that the expansion of second home tourism has affected all the mentioned indicators. In order to assess the statistical significance of the observed difference among economic, environmental, social and physical indicators, one-way ANOVA was used. The findings indicate an inequality in the average influence of second home expansion in Ghamsar. Scheffe’s post hoc test reveals that the average influence of physical, social and economic indicators is the same, and, hence, are subsumed within a single category. However, the average influence of environmental effects is placed in a different category. 5. CONCLUSION The findings of the second order model indicate that the economic, environmental, social and physical factors are capable of capturing the effects. A more detailed presentation of the findings of the research is as follows: the economic indicator takes the lion’s share in explaining the effects of second home tourism expansion. The factor loading for social effect of second home tourism expansion was determined to be 0.92. The physical influence of the presence of second homes in the region was analyzed using four factors. This indicator explains 0.62 of variation of second home tourism expansion effects. Environmental effects of the expansion of second home tourism were analyzed using indicators of increased pollution of water and soil resources, increase in garbage production, and encroachment upon nature (rivers, pastures, mountains, etc.). The resultant negative factor loading denotes the negative environmental effect of the expansion of tourism in the region. Finally, the findings of the structural equation modeling show that expansion of tourism has played a significant role in the satisfaction of local residents, with a factor loading a 0.47 and a significance level of 0.000. Therefore, with a confidence level of 99 percent, it can be said that expansion of tourism has influenced the satisfaction of the local residents.

Cabo Pulmo National Park is a national marine park on the east coast of Mexico's Baja California Peninsula, approx. 100 km north of Cabo San Lucas, on the Sea of Cortez. In 2014, I met a realtor that had a client interested in buying a home on the beach that wanted to know how sea-level rise might effect the home for sale. The question spurred my curiosity, and I offered to look at the site and provide an estimate of the potential rise, which I thought would be easy, given other workers studies globally. The home is located approx. 80 m north of the National Park headquarters. To my shock, I found the home and several other homes along the beach were built in the intertidal zone, on (or within?) the fore dune beach, roughly at MHWL (or slightly above it when they were built?). Immediately, I thought about tsunami inundation, and later hurricanes and tropical storm surges. I decided to investigate and attempt to quantify the hazards (probability of exceedance in the next 50 years)and wrote a brief report (pro bono publico), which was forwarded to the client and the insurance company. Needless to say, the home is still for sale, and the insurance company asked for more details. My conclusions are that sea-level rise is much less of a hazard than those posed by tropical storm surges and hurricanes, which have recurrence times of a few to several years on and near the Baja Peninsula. The most likely chance of inundation (exceedance) is posed by regional tropical storm surges and near misses. A direct hit from a hurricane has a very low probability but extreme consequences. The “background” events are astronomical tides, where Sun and Moon and other planets align (conjunction or syzygy), especially when Earth is at perihelion. Tsunami height and frequency depend on earthquakes from the San Andreas fault located ~40 km offshore to the east under the Sea of Cortez. Cabo Pulmo is sheltered from regional tsunamis, given it’s location in the Sea of Cortez.

The Cabo Pulmo reef in the southwest of the Gulf of California, Mexico (23 ° 26´ N, 109 ° 25´ W), is considered one of the most successful protected areas in the American Pacific, since during this century there have been increases in abundance and biomass of resident carnivorous fish (snappers , whitefish, horse mackerel, sharks, etc.). This is due to the no-fishing regime and the good state of conservation that allow it to maintain high levels of primary and secondary productivity. The increase in the flow of matter and energy has led to the arrival of high trophic level species such as sharks, which are more frequent and represent a local tourist attraction. The objective of this work is to present a chronology of the appearance of the different species of sharks in Cabo Pulmo, based on bibliography, field work and consultations with local residents, dive guides and specialists who have visited the area in the last 15 years. The results show that 11 species of sharks of 9 genera and 6 families have been recorded in the Cabo Pulmo reef; eight of these were annotated in various bibliographic sources; here the occurrence of three more is cited for the first time (Sphyrna lewini, Gynglymostoma cirratum and Carcharhinus longimanus). The arrival of these species to the reef zone could be indicative of a good state of the local ecosystem, therefore it is expected that in the coming years a greater number of shark species, or their biomass, will be recorded.

Stakeholder participation in decision-making processes for marine and coastal protected areas: Case studies of the south-western Gulf of California, Mexico

This paper uses Cabo Pulmo National Park (CPNP) as a case study to examine the successes and challenges of Marine Protected Area (MPA) design, conception, and long-term governance. Drawing from literature in environmental anthropology, political ecology, and conservation, the author argues for a renewed examination of the ‘success’ of CPNP that pays greater attention to the relationship between socio-political factors (e.g. access, ownership, participation, and rights) and protected area governance. Ultimately, the paper calls for a reconsideration of Marine Protected Area design and implementation that explicitly acknowledges the politics of conservation and protected area management, and seeks to explicitly create and support more effective platforms for participation and conflict resolution.