POV: Inside the Nazis' Gas Chamber

According to the problem that the intelligence is not high of the recognition of GIS PD types by SF6 decomposition components, using the real 110kV GIS platform, simulating two kinds of insulation defects PD of SF6 gas, and making the research on the change of the four kinds of gases of CO2,CF4,SO2F2,and SOF2,then making the research on the ratio of components of c(SOF2)/c(SO2F2), and c(CF4+CO2)/c(SOF2+SO2F2). The results show that the two types of ratio of components of the GIS bus spike PD and the insulator surface PD are significantly different. Therefore, the two types of ratio of components can as the features to identify the GIS bus spike PD and the insulator surface PD. Introduction SF6 gas is widely used in gas insulated switchgear (GIS) as an excellent insulating medium. Under normal circumstances, the chemical property of SF6 is very stable, and not easy to break down. But in the case of the GIS device has internal insulation defects and partial discharge, SF6 gas will break down and produce a trace of the gas. [1]. High energy electron impact caused by high electric field in the partial discharge will cause SF6 gas decomposition. 6 (6 ) , 1 ~ 5 X e SF SF X F X      (1) 1 X X e SF SF F     (2) Most primary decomposition products SFX (X=1,2,... 5) will compound to SF6 molecules, but there is water, oxygen and other impurities in the electric chamber. The water, oxygen and other impurities will be associated with the SFX (X=1,2,... 5) to generate CF4, SO2F2, SOF2, SO2, SOF4 and other products [2]. If the discharge area is surrounded by carbon material (such as stainless steel metal electrodes, solid insulating materials, etc.), the F and O atom in the gas chamber will react with C atom, producing CF4 and CO2 and other products. At high temperature, the C atom also reacts with CO2 to generate CO [3]. In this paper, using the real 110kV GIS platform, two kinds of insulation defects GIS of bus spike PD and the insulator surface PD will be tested. This paper will focus on four kinds of gases of CO2,CF4,SO2F2 and SOF2,and the ratio of components of c(SOF2)/c(SO2F2) and c(CF4+CO2)/c(SOF2+SO2F2). Finally find out the methods to identify the GIS bus spike PD and the insulator surface PD. 3rd International Conference on Machinery, Materials and Information Technology Applications (ICMMITA 2015) © 2015. The authors Published by Atlantis Press 1010 Overview of experimental system The whole experimental system is composed of the GIS experimental model, the pressure device, the SF6 component analysis device and the PD monitoring device. The structure of the GIS experimental model is a three phase, and the insulation level is 110kV which is divided into 6 gas chambers. The gas chamber is separated by a basin insulator, and each gas chamber is provided with the air outlet and the barometer. The gas chamber which is horizontally placed is 1# and the gas chamber which is vertically placed is 2#. Gas chromatograph of Huaai GC9760B will be used to analysis SF6 components. Fig.1.GIS experimental model Construction of insulation defect In the 2# gas chamber, the electric wire is arranged on the edge of the surface of the insulator. Wire ground clearance is 60mm, and the surface distance is 63mm. The bus spike partial discharge model is set up in the 1# chamber. Spike length is 4.7cm, and the gap length is 2.4cm. (a) 2# gas chamber (b) 1# gas chamber Fig.2. The construction of insulation defect Experimental data acquisition and data processing In this experiment, high purity SF6 gas (99.999%) was used. In this paper, the SF6 gas was measured after filling in the electric chamber. The results show that the content of CO2 in 2# was 1.5895ppm, the content of CO2 in 2# was 1.5771ppm, the content of CF4 in 1# was 1.4895ppm, the content of CF4 in 1# was 1.4762ppm. In order to compare the trend of SF6 decomposition components of two kinds of insulation defects, a constant volume of PD will be ensured as far as possible by adjusting the voltage. The experiment used the mode of three phases of the common pressure, and the experimental voltage was maintained between 31kV~35kV, and the volume of PD of the gas chamber of 2# and 1# was1300pC to 800pC. The SF6 gas pressure of two gas chambers was 3.5MPa. The experimental voltage was maintained to 240h continuously of insulation defects in 2# and 1# gas chambers, and gas chromatography was used to trace the SF6 discharge (every 12h~24h), and the quantitative results were obtained.

The gas chamber is one of the most important components of the non-spectral infrared gas sensor, and its design will directly affect the performance of the sensor. Based on the principle of non-spectral infrared detection, the relevant research on carbon dioxide sensing chamber is carried out in this paper. The optical simulation software Tracepro is used to analyze the ray tracing and the light flux of the detection surface of the cuboid and cylindrical gas chambers; The length of the gas chamber and the infrared absorption efficiency of the gas are theoretically studied, and the length of the gas chamber and the infrared absorption efficiency of the gas are simulated using CFD software Ansys Fluent, which provides a basis for the selection of the length of the gas chamber; The relationship between the inner diameter of the gas chamber and the infrared light reflection loss is analyzed, which provides a reference for the selection of the inner diameter of the gas chamber; At the same time, the reflectivity and related physical properties of the gas chamber coating material were studied. Therefore, this study has a certain guiding role in the design of the gas chamber of a high-performance non-spectral infrared carbon dioxide gas sensor.

What were the models for the gas chambers, and when were they first implemented? Examining technical details of the ventilation systems of the Birkenau morgues, this article argues that from the beginning of October 1941 the SS planned Morgue 1 of Crematoria II and III as a gas chamber for the extermination of human beings. The precedents were Zyklon-B chambers for delousing clothing, a technology widely known throughout a network of specialized firms. Far from pursuing the halting and somewhat inconscient development of gas chambers in Birkenau heretofore presented in the historical literature, the SS first took an interest in Zyklon-B chambers in the summer of 1941, and by early October the Central Building Directorate of Auschwitz intentionally and systematically had adapted such equipment to the gassing of human beings.

Design, experimental modeling and analysis of compact double-gas-chamber hydro-pneumatic strut

This article has established a mathematical model to evaluate the influence of several structural parameters of the gas chamber on the movement of the gas-operated automatic mechanism during single and series firing.Parameters such as the area of the gas block hole, the gap area between the piston and the gas chamber, and the area of the gas exhaust hole significantly affect the movement of the automatic machine.The velocity of the bolt carrier, the movement cycle of the bolt carrier, and the pressure in the gas chamber are used to evaluate the influence of these parameters.Numerical calculations are applied to the PKMS machine gun.Calculation results show that: The maximum velocity of the bolt carrier corresponding to the number of gas exhaust holes on the PKMS machine gun is 0 holes, 1 hole, and 2 holes, respectively 4.913 m/s; 3.625m/s; 2.424 m/s.The calculation results are the scientific basis to evaluate the reliability of the gas exhaust section adjustment part during the firing process, providing the necessary energy to supply the automatic machine to work in adjustment cases.This result can be applied to survey and calculate the design of gas chambers for machine guns working on the principle of gas block.

Cyanogen chloride, as a systemic toxic agent, can cause death rapidly. In this paper, a non-dispersive infrared sensor was designed for the infrared absorption detection of cyanogen chloride at 800 cm-1. The roughness of the internal coating material was analyzed by experiments, and the gold-plated gas chamber was selected. The light path propagation of different cross-section gas chambers was simulated, and the circular section gas chamber was selected to increase the infrared detector signal. The effect of flow rate on voltage was studied. The standard curve between voltage and concentration was obtained under the optimal condition of 0.4 L min-1. The maximum response time was 19 s, and RSD was less than 2%. The interference experiment results showed that common gases entering the gas chamber do not cause interference. The non-dispersive infrared sensor for cyanogen chloride has good stability and detects cyanogen chloride in real-time.

Development of a fine bubble generator through the active control of gas chamber pressure

Air hammer drilling technique has long been considered an effective approach to improve the rate of penetration (ROP) in hard formations. However, when being used in wet or water formations, air hammers are easy to output less energy or to be failure to work; in addition, the formation fluids would flow back into the gas chamber cylinder of air hammer when the gas circulation was stopped during the pipe connection time. In potential water formations, the operators would worry the possible failures of air hammers, thus quit the air hammer drilling technique and choose a comparatively safe drilling technique even with a lower ROP. A kind of foam hammers was developed. It is suitable for both dry gas and wet gas (misted gas or foam) drilling media with high energy output compared to the air hammers. Furthermore, with the installation of anti-backflow device, the foam hammer can effectively seal the formation fluids and prevent their backflow into the gas chambers of hammer. Two field tests were carried out. The lithology of the both cases’ targeting formations was hard rocks and the ROP was no more than 1.5 m/h in mud drilling. Air hammer drilling technique might be the best choice and the ROP might be increased by 5-10 times. However, due to the potential water strata contained, the operators had no confidence to employ air hammer drilling technique firstly. If the wet formations were encountered in advance with a short dry interval and needed to change to misted gas or foam drilling technology, an overwork of bit-change is needed and the short interval of gas drilling would not bring economical benefits. The foam hammer drilling technique can solve this problem. With the foam hammer, there was no need to trip out/in the BHA when changing into misted gas drilling or foam drilling due to the water formations. The results in two cases showed that the ROP of foam hammer in gas drilling medium was 5~10 times higher than traditional mud drilling, and the ROP in foam medium was 2~3 times higher than traditional mud drilling without reservoir fluids backflow into the hammer's gas chamber. With the foam hammer, the operators may firstly apply the gas drilling technique in dry formations. If the encountered strata contain water, they can immediately transformed into wet gas drilling medium such as misted gas or foam with no tripping out/in to change the bits. Thus, improve the drilling performance compared to air hammer drilling.

The essay offers a chronological account of my introduction to Holocaust reality, beginning with visits to Dachau in 1955, Mauthausen in 1963 and the main camp at Auschwitz and Auschwitz/Birkenau in 1964, at a time when little was known about the concentration camps and the gassing procedures in the deathcamps. The sites would not become tourist destinations for many years, and in fact at Dachau there were only two other visitors present and at Mauthausen and Auschwitz-Birkenau none. Such a sense of desolation is unrecapturable today, and I was forced to deal with the knowledge that I was standing alone on some of the largest cemeteries in Europe. I focus on how I slowly learned to absorb the magnitude of the catastrophe we call the Holocaust, especially the murder of European Jewry. Viewing the crematorium and small (unused) gas chamber at Dachau, standing inside the used one at Mauthausen, and contemplating the ruins of crematoria and gas chambers at Birkenau quickly teaches one the value and the limitations of the imagination in trying to conjure up the fate of the victims and the cruelty of their killers. I was helped in this endeavor by attending the war crimes trials in the summer of 1964 of SS General Karl Wolff in Munich and an array of Auschwitz personnel at their prolonged trial in Frankfurt. Listening to testimony from shattered survivors while sitting no more than fifty feet away from their tormentors, remorseless creatures like Oswald Kaduk and Wilhelm Boger, left me much to reflect on, and these comprise a large part of the essay. History was made more personal for me by these experiences, and they became an unforgettable foundation for what would eventually become a lifelong effort to find ways of challenging the validity of what still today is often referred to as an unimaginable experience.

Design and fabrication of a miniaturized gas ionization chamber for production of high quality ion beams

The electrical measurement is necessary for quality assurance and classification for all chips during manufacturing processes. Linear-arrayed probing device with capability of simultaneously measuring 10 chips of gas sensors is developed considering the compromise of performance, cost and registration for wafer-based electrical measurement system. An optical registration system, consists of 2 optical imaging devices, is designed and integrated with a linear-arrayed probing device and motion stage platform for probes alignment and wafer positioning. A small gas chamber is required to provide homogenous concentration of testing gas at probing area above wafer. Proposed measuring system has the features that homogeneous concentration of gas in chamber can be achieved quickly in 1 minute, and probing efficiency is good that probing a 6”-wafer with chip size of 1x1 mm (about 17600 chip/wafer) can be finished in 30 minutes. Detail design of electrical measuring system and implementation of all of devices, subsystems, gas chambers, a chuck table with heater and the motion stage platform are completed. And system I&T is being conducted at the moment.

A semi-active sloshing suppression control method for the contained liquid in the closed vessel is presented. The presented method uses the air spring effect of the gas chamber on the liquid surface, when the closed vessel is divided into two sectors with the vertical bulkhead in it so as to allows communication between two sectors at the lower part of the vessel. When the valve that is provided at the bulkhead between two gas chambers closes, the spring effect of the gas chamber arises. On the contrary, when the valve opens, the spring effect of the gas chamber diminishes. Switching algorithm of the valve operation makes sloshing response to decrease. The effectiveness of the presented semi-active sloshing suppression control method is examined with numerical simulations and the scaled model experiment. As the result, the presented method is effective to suppress the sloshing while the consuming energy to control the valve is small.

The dynamic properties of one kind of Inter-Connected Hydro-Pneumatic Struts (IC HPS), which is designed based on the developed double-gas-chamber compacted Hydro-Pneumatic Struts (HPS) integrating double inner gas chambers, will be investigated in this research. Comparing with the traditional IC HPS designs based on single gas chamber compacted HPS, the proposed IC HPS can postpone the force distortion, and then increase the working envelop, provide good stiffness performance and be stable in both In-Phase and Out-of-Phase working condition. The equation of motion of the proposed IC HPS will be derived firstly. And then based on the established dynamic model, the related simulating model will be established utilizing the AMEsim software, and the validity of the established simulating model will be verified on the basis of experimental data and available literatures. The validity and performance of the proposed IC HPS will be verified and investigated through comprehensive comparison with traditional IC HPS designs. Finally, the detailed sensitivity analysis of the essential design parameter of the proposed IC HPS will be presented to illustrate the advantage of the proposed IC HPS design.

Peatlands cover more than 30% of the Finnish land area and impact N2O fluxes. Denitrifiers release N2O as an intermediate or end product. In situ N2O emissions of a near pH neutral pristine fen soil in Finnish Lapland were marginal during gas chamber measurements. However, nitrate and ammonium fertilization significantly stimulated in situ N2O emissions. Stimulation with nitrate was stronger than with ammonium. N2O was produced and subsequently consumed in gas chambers. In unsupplemented anoxic microcosms, fen soil produced N2O only when acetylene was added to block nitrous oxide reductase, suggesting complete denitrification. Nitrate and nitrite stimulated denitrification in fen soil, and maximal reaction velocities (vmax) of nitrate or nitrite dependent denitrification where 18 and 52 nmol N2O h-1 gDW-1, respectively. N2O was below 30% of total produced N gases in fen soil when concentrations of nitrate and nitrite were <500 μM. vmax for N2O consumption was up to 36 nmol N2O h-1 gDW-1. Denitrifier diversity was assessed by analyses of narG, nirK/nirS, and nosZ (encoding nitrate-, nitrite-, and nitrous oxide reductases, respectively) by barcoded amplicon pyrosequencing. Analyses of ~14,000 quality filtered sequences indicated up to 25 species-level operational taxonomic units (OTUs), and up to 359 OTUs at 97% sequence similarity, suggesting diverse denitrifiers. Phylogenetic analyses revealed clusters distantly related to publicly available sequences, suggesting hitherto unknown denitrifiers. Representatives of species-level OTUs were affiliated with sequences of unknown soil bacteria and Actinobacterial, Alpha-, Beta-, Gamma-, and Delta-Proteobacterial sequences. Comparison of the 4 gene markers at 97% similarity indicated a higher diversity of narG than for the other gene markers based on Shannon indices and observed number of OTUs. The collective data indicate (i) a high denitrification and N2O consumption potential, and (ii) a highly diverse, nitrate limited denitrifier community associated with potential N2O fluxes in a pH-neutral fen soil.

In 1944, while taking pictures of synthetic rubber and petrol plants in Monowitz, Poland, U.S. Air Force reconnaissance photographers unintentionally and unknowingly captured images of some of the camps at Auschwitz. These photographs were first published in 1977. The railway tracks leading to the camp are visible; a wall where executions took place; the commander’s house; even the shafts on the roofs of the gas chambers through which the Zyklon-B was thrown can be made out. At a distance of 7,000 metres, individual people are barely larger than a single pixel and groups appear as patterns. One group is moving away from the tracks towards the camp; another forms an s-shaped line waiting for registration in the courtyard. A third group is approaching the gas chamber at Crematorium 4; the door to the courtyard is open.