Potassium Hydroxide-Activated Palm Kernel Shell Carbon for Methylene Blue Adsorption: Reagent Recovery and Regeneration Strategies

Calcined biomass-bentonite composites as eco-friendly adsorbents for the treatment of toxic anionic and cationic dye wastewater

SARA Title III—A new era of corporate responsibility and accountability

The study delves into the comprehensive investigation of the effects of palm kernel shells (PKS) and palm seeds as alternative additives in the production process of cast aluminum pulleys, employing green sand molds as a key medium. Given the escalating environmental concerns, alongside the growing imperative for employing sustainable materials in industrial practices, agricultural by-products such as palm kernel shells and seeds emerge as material for enhancing the properties of foundry sand and the characteristics of the resulting cast products. This research work is aimed at producing Aluminum pulley using palm kernel seeds and shells as additives and to examine its effects on the characteristics of cast Aluminum pulley. The outcome of the research will be a solution to failure of Aluminum pulley due to fatigue. The research methodology encompassed a systematic approach in which varying percentages of PKS and seeds were methodically incorporated into the green sand molds. Three pulleys (Specimen A, B and C) were casted using silica sand, starch serves as the binder (from cassava), fibrous material from palm kernel shells and reducing agents from palm kernel seeds This study meticulously assessed the impact of these additive materials on a range of crucial mechanical properties, including tensile strength, elongation, hardness, and the overall surface quality of the cast aluminum pulleys, in addition to evaluating the dimensional accuracy of the castings produced. Alongside these performance metrics, the research also focused on key indicators such as the mold strength and thermal stability of the resulting green sand mixtures, which are paramount for ensuring the overall effectiveness and reliability of the casting process. After casting, the following tests were conducted on the specimens: Macro inspection, Hardness test, Microscopic examination, Impact test and machining test respectively. Notably, the results indicated a significant enhancement in mold cohesiveness and thermal resistance with the addition of PKS and seeds, leading to marked improvements in the mechanical properties of the final castings produced through this process. The study identified that optimal performance was achieved at a specific blend ratio of these biomass materials, suggesting their potential utility as effective and sustainable additives in the foundry industry. The findings of this research hold significant implications for the advancement of more sustainable casting practices within the aluminum foundry sector. Furthermore, this work promotes the concepts of resource recovery and waste reduction, while simultaneously ensuring that product integrity and quality are maintained at high standards. By integrating agricultural by-products into industrial applications, this study contributes valuable insights that can aid in transitioning towards a more sustainable and environmentally friendly future in metal casting processes. This paper comprehensively explores the substantial potential of incorporating palm kernel shells (PKS) and seeds into aluminum cast pulleys, aiming to not only enhance their mechanical properties but also promote a sustainable approach to the utilization of agricultural by-products, such as Palm Kernel Shells (PKSH) and Palm Kernel Seeds (PKS), in foundry applications has garnered significant attention due to their beneficial effects on the material utilization in casting industry. This study aims to develop new Molding additives from PKSH and PKS to enhance sustainable practices in Metal Casting. The research investigates the effects of incorporating PKSH and PKS into a green Sand Mold mixture for its stability, cast surface finish, and mechanical strength. Experimental results showed that adding palm kernel shells and seed-grounded powder (PKSP) significantly improves the thermal stability, flow-ability, and cohesiveness of green sand. Incorporating palm kernel shells and seed-grounded powder (PKSP) significantly reduces casting defects during manufacturing. It also conducts an in-depth investigation to relate the physical and mechanical characteristics of aluminum composites with varying percentages of palm kernel shells and seeds into a green Sand Mold mixture for its stability. Notably, adding an optimal blend of 4.5% PKSHP and 4.5%PKSP, to Specimen B enhances it permeability, minimizes deformation under casting pressures, and produces high-quality cast products. The results comprehensively demonstrate that the integration of these organic waste materials can significantly improve the mechanical performance of aluminum pulleys alongside contributing positively to environmental sustainability by effectively minimizing waste generation promoting the principles of a circular economy, and highlighting palm kernel by- products' potential, to encourages further exploration into integrating these materials into existing manufacturing processes. It also advances environmental stewardship and industrial productivity, especially in the foundry industry.

Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Fourier Transformation Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analyses of chemically activated carbons produced from coconut (CS) and palm kernel (PKS) shells impregnated with 1M solution of K2CO3 and NaHCO3 at 10000C using Carbolite Muffle Furnace were studied. Results from the FTIR analyses revealed that the coconut and palm kernel shells manufactured were successfully chemically activated. Several chemical compounds and functional groups were found in chemically activated carbon made from palm kernels and coconut shells such as hydroxyl groups, carbonyl groups, ethers, alkanes, alkenes and aromatic groups present as evidence of the lignocellulose structure in them. Chemically activated carbon made from coconut shells exhibited nine distinct spectra, while palm kernel shells exhibited six distinct spectra. The chemically activated carbons generated at a higher temperature (10000C) had larger pores, indicating that temperature is an important process parameter in the development of surface porosity in chemically activated carbons. The chemical carbonization activation methods used provided porosity, a large surface area, and precise morphology for absorption in both the coconut and palm kernel shells, indicating that they can be turned to high-performance adsorbents. Both organic and inorganic contaminants can be removed from the environment using the chemically activated carbons produced.

Chemically activated carbons generated from coconut (CS) and palm kernel (PKS) shells soaked with 1M solution of K2CO3 and NaHCO3 at 1000°C using the Carbolite Muffle Furnace were examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Fourier Transformation Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). Results from the FTIR analyses revealed that the coconut and palm kernel shells manufactured were successfully chemically activated. Several chemical compounds and functional groups, such as hydroxyl groups, carbonyl groups, ethers, alkanes, alkenes, and aromatic groups, were detected in chemically activated carbon produced from palm kernels and coconut shells as proof of the lignocellulose structure in them. Chemically activated carbon made from coconut shells exhibited nine distinct spectra, while palm kernel shells exhibited six distinct spectra. The pores were larger in the chemically activated carbons produced at a higher temperature (1000°C), demonstrating that temperature is an essential process parameter in the development of surface porosity in chemically activated carbons. The chemical carbonization activation methods used provided porosity, a large surface area, and precise morphology for absorption in both the coconut and palm kernel shells, indicating that they can be turned to high-performance adsorbents. Both organic and inorganic contaminants can be removed from the environment using the chemically activated carbons produced.

Comparative studies of the physicochemical properties of chemical activated carbon from palm kernel (PKS), coconut (CNS) and groundnut (GNS) shells were investigated. The properties investigated were pH, moisture content, specific gravity, BET surface area, pore volume, porosity, ash content and metal ions present. From the results obtained, the chemical activated carbon prepared from palm kernel, coconut and groundnut shells shows good physicochemical properties and adsorption capacity. However coconut shell with BET surface area 1177.520 (m2/g), potassium content of 179.33ppm and pH 7.5, having a better advantage to be used as organic fertilizer compare to groundnut shell with BET surface area 950.069 (m2/g), potassium content of 140.00ppm & pH 8.4 and palm kernel shell with BET surface area 717.142(m2/g), potassium content of 128.00ppm and pH 8.7 respectively in that order. Also, coconut shell with pore diameter of 2.840e+00, specific gravity of 1.42 & moisture content of 19.7% makes it a prefer option compare to groundnut shell with pore diameter of 2.920e+00, specific gravity of 148 & moisture content of 19.8% and palm kernel shell with pore diameter of 2.840e+00, specific gravity of 1.61 and moisture content of 20.4% respectively Keywords: Chemical activated carbons, physicochemical properties, BET surface area and heavy metals

Heavy metal contamination of industrial effluent is one of the significant environmental problems due to their toxicity and its accumulation throughout the food chain. Adsorption is one of the promising methods for removal of heavy metals from aqua solution because of its simple technique, efficient, reliable and low-cost due to the utilization of residue from the agricultural industry. In this study, activated carbon from palm kernel shells has been produced through chemical activation process using zinc chloride as an activating agent and carbonized at 800 °C. Palm kernel shell activated carbon, PAC was assessed for its efficiency to remove Chromium (VI) ions from aqueous solutions through a batch adsorption process. The kinetic mechanisms have been analysed using Lagergren first-order kinetics model, second-order kinetics model and intra-particle diffusion model. The characterizations such as BET surface area, surface morphology, SEM-EDX have been done. The result shows that the activation process by ZnCl2 was successfully improved the porosity and modified the functional group of palm kernel shell. The result shows that the maximum adsorption capacity of Cr is 11.40mg/g at 30ppm initial metal ion concentration and 0.1g/50mL of adsorbent concentration. The adsorption process followed the pseudo second orders kinetic model.

This study examined the morphology and microstructural evolution of resin-bonded palm kernel and coconut shell grain-based abrasive grinding wheels and their physico-mechanical and tribological properties. Raw palm kernel shell (PKS) and coconut shell (CNS) samples were obtained, sorted, sun- and oven-dried, pulverised, and screened into fines of 250, 500 and 850 μm grain sizes, and blended at PKS to CNS mixing ratios of 1:0, 0:1, 1:2, 1:1 and 2:1, respectively. The blended grains, on a weight basis of the total aggregates, were bonded with 25 wt.% polyester resin and hardened and catalysed with 1.5 wt.% cobalt compound and methyl-ethyl ketone peroxide. The aggregates were moulded and compressed at a constant pressure of 18 MPa, ejected, and room-cured before being oven-cured to produce the wheels. The microstructural, water absorption, impact, flexural, hardness, and wear rate properties of the produced samples were evaluated. The properties studied were significantly influenced by grain sizes and mixing ratios of the PKS and CNS in the wheels. The least hardness value, 6.42 HRB, and wear rate, 0.44 mg/m were found in wheels produced from aggregates with pure PKS content with 850 and 250 μm grain sizes, respectively. The wheels' durability qualities suggest they could be used as abrasive grinding wheels, in particular, for wood cutting and finishing processes.

Affordable housing issue: Experimental investigation on properties of eco-friendly lightweight concrete produced from incorporating periwinkle and palm kernel shells

Chemically modified silica gel with thiol group as an adsorbent for retention of some toxic soft metal ions from water and industrial effluent

The study estimated the amount of energy required for grinding palm kernel shell and groundnut shell using laboratory hammer mill and also characterize their ground physical properties. The material type and hammer mill screen aperture significantly influenced the energy requirement for grinding the two materials. For a given screen aperture size, groundnut shell consumed more energy than palm kernel shell. The energy relationship with hammer mill screen exhibited a second order polynomial form. Within the same hammer mill screen aperture range, the energy requirements for palm kernel and groundnut shell were considerably lower than most grass based biomass or straw. The bulk and particle density of groundnut shell decreased with increased geometric mean diameter while that of palm kernel shell increased with geometric mean. The two materials ground exhibited a lognormal particle size distribution at hammer mill screen of 5 and 3 mm, while 0.8 mm screen aperture exhibited a normal size distribution. The total particle and surface area estimate in a charge was sensitive to the screen sizes. Energy equations: Ratzinger’s, Kicks and Bond’s were used to investigate the results of the biomass comminution with Ratzinger’s equations showing a higher R2 value for palm kernel shell while Kick’s equation showed a higher R2 value for groundnut shell. Key words: Milling, energy consumption, groundnut shell, palm kernel shell, grinding.

The needs for eco-friendly composites have initiated the use of agricultural wastes as possible replacements for expensive synthetic carbon and glass fillers for metal and polymer strengthening. In this study, degree of refinement of palm kernel shells, coconut shells and periwinkle shells has been investigated through ball-milling approach. Palm kernel, coconut and periwinkle shells were pulverised using disc grinder and refined using top-down approach under the same milling conditions. The particles of palm kernel, coconut and periwinkle shells obtained were analysed and their sizes were determined. Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopic and X-ray Diffractometric analyses indicated different compositions of the examined agricultural wastes particles. Imaging sizing of the particles indicated attainment of nanoparticles when milling for 74 hours at 10 charge ratios for both carbonized and uncarbonized palm kernel, coconut and periwinkle shells. Comparison of sizes showed that uncarbonized palm kernel shell has a least grain size among other uncarbonized agricultural waste particles. Therefore, uncarbonised palm kernel shells have highest breakage tendency among others. KEYWORDS : Degree, Refinement, Agricultural wastes, Fillers, Milling.

Effects of torrefaction on the physiochemical properties of oil palm empty fruit bunches, mesocarp fiber and kernel shell

The study was designed to investigate how ammonia and ammonium acetate modification of activated carbon produced from coconut and palm kernel shells can influence the physicochemical characteristics, morphology, thermal properties, surface functionalities and porous structure of the activated carbon. Surface modification of activated carbons was confirmed by FTIR spectroscopy. Elemental microanalyser and Boehm titration method were used to determine elemental (C, H, N) analysis and surface functional groups, respectively. Atomic force microscopy was employed to determine the morphology. Thermal characteristic was measured by thermogravimetry. The pore structures of the carbons were examined by nitrogen adsorption measurement and SEM. The carbon yields were 48.7 ± 0.2 and 44.5 ± 0.1% for coconut shell and palm kernel shell, respectively. The surface areas of the activated carbons were in the range of 934–1646 m2/g. The FTIR spectroscopy showed N–H and C–N bands, and their presence were confirmed by Boehm titration. A little pore widening of the modified activated carbons was observed from SEM images, which could have been caused by the impregnation process. The BET surface areas of the carbons were slightly increased as evident by the pore size increase and the weight losses were significantly reduced as shown by the TGA curves. There was no significant difference between the spherical shapes of modified and unmodified activated carbons as shown by AFM images. Surface modification produced activated carbons with weakly alkaline functional group. A series of thermally stable activated carbons with noticeable increased surface area, pore size and basic character were obtained.

The production of cheap and eco-friendly graphene material for the removal of contaminants in wastewater is necessary for sustainable water treatment. In this study, the production of graphene oxide from agricultural wastes (rind of orange and palm kernel shell) for the adsorption of paracetamol from aqueous solution was examined. The Graphene Oxides (GO) were produced using modified Hummer method and characterized using XRD and FTIR analyses. The kinetic data were analyzed using the pseudo-first and pseudo-second order equations, while the equilibrium isotherm data were fitted into Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms. FTIR spectral indicated mainly the presence of oxygen containing functional groups such as Hydroxyl group (OH) and Carbonyl group (C=O, C-O) confirming the synthesis of graphene oxide. The highest percentage removal of 76.6 from the aqueous paracetamol solution was established at pH 7, adsorbent dose of 0.4 g and contact time of 80 minutes with graphene oxide from palm kernel shell. The adsorption data was best described by pseudo-second-order model (R2---gt--- 0.900) and Freundlich isotherm. Therefore the rind of orange and palm kernel shell can be suitable cheap alternatives to graphite for the synthesis of GO. Modification and further purification of the GO can be carried out to enhance their adsorption capacities.