Post-disaster social work: A case study of an Australian government agency

This paper mainly focuses on the development of disaster social work in Mainland China and the intervention of social work in disaster relief. Before the Wenchuan earthquake and in the initial stage of post-earthquake, disaster social work was mainly based on individual psychotherapy; from the earthquake to the year of 2012 in which post-earthquake recovery and reconstruction was completed, the disaster relief began to emphasise community building and integration, while the basic framework for disaster social work was also established. Social workers begin to explore the new mode of developmental and localised disaster social work. By combining with the practical experiences from disaster social work, this paper tries to highlight the dilemmas confronting disaster relief in Mainland China and put forward some corresponding countermeasures and suggestions, which could improve the future disaster relief system in Mainland China.

There is growing recognition amongst social work researchers and practitioners of the significance of the physical environment to the health and well-being of people and communities. Traditionally social workers have placed significant attention on the ‘person-in-environment’ concept, a concept that has related largely to the social world ignoring the interaction between humans and nature. However, the physical environment is now widely recognised as a critical factor shaping well-being and as a factor worthy of its own justice. In this chapter I explore the nature of social work in the context of a prioritised physical environment and explore the links between social work, the environment, environmental justice and sustainability. This analysis has become increasingly significant in the context of climate changes, climate-induced disasters, environmental degradation and burgeoning populations placing increasing pressure on eco-systems and ecological well-being. In this context social work researchers are recognising new environmental challenges – challenges that are exacerbated by levels of poverty, inequitable access to resources and uneven power relations. Environmental social work, and its corollary – disaster social work, are areas of increasing practice significance as social workers are challenged to work with people in damaged environments. These emerging areas of practice highlight an increasing need for social workers to challenge practices that enhance environmental degradation, to incorporate sustainability and environmental consciousness as critical areas of practice and to undertake disaster preparation, planning, response and adaptation strategies to assist communities to build capacity and responsiveness in the face of environmental threats.

There is growing recognition amongst social work researchers and practitioners of the significance of the physical environment to the health and well-being of people and communities. Traditionally social workers have placed significant attention on the ‘person-in-environment’ concept, a concept that has related largely to the social world ignoring the interaction between humans and nature. However, the physical environment is now widely recognised as a critical factor shaping well-being and as a factor worthy of its own justice. In this chapter I explore the nature of social work in the context of a prioritised physical environment and explore the links between social work, the environment, environmental justice and sustainability. This analysis has become increasingly significant in the context of climate changes, climate-induced disasters, environmental degradation and burgeoning populations placing increasing pressure on eco-systems and ecological well-being. In this context social work researchers are recognising new environmental challenges – challenges that are exacerbated by levels of poverty, inequitable access to resources and uneven power relations. Environmental social work, and its corollary – disaster social work, are areas of increasing practice significance as social workers are challenged to work with people in damaged environments. These emerging areas of practice highlight an increasing need for social workers to challenge practices that enhance environmental degradation, to incorporate sustainability and environmental consciousness as critical areas of practice and to undertake disaster preparation, planning, response and adaptation strategies to assist communities to build capacity and responsiveness in the face of environmental threats.

The purpose of this article was to examine field research after disasters by focusing on fieldwork challenges in post-disaster research settings. We describe and evaluate post-disaster fieldwork based on three separate research projects: A study of land use change adaptation strategies following the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami; a study of long-term housing recovery following the 2001 Gujarat Earthquake in India; and a study of the role of social capital in shelter recovery following the 2010 Haiti Earthquake. The main findings of this study deal with some of the unique set of challenges that accompanies fieldwork in post-disaster settings. Our findings indicate six aspects that researchers might consider prior to undertaking fieldwork in a disaster setting: the critical role of language, logistics of transport and living accommodation, methodological matters, the researcher’s position in the field (i.e., gender, ethnicity), fieldwork blues and ethical concerns. Potential solutions to these challenges include understanding the target community prior to embarking on fieldwork, having flexibility in the field to deal with unexpected issues and problems, planning ahead for institutional review board approvals, forming research collaborations and having strategies in place to manage stress in the field.

Disasters do not just affect humans. And humans do not only live with, care for or interact with other humans. In this conceptual article, we explain how animals are relevant to green and disaster social work. Power, oppression and politics are our themes. We start the discussion by defining disasters and providing examples of how three categories of animals are affected by disasters, including in the current COVID-19 pandemic. They are: companion animals (pets), farmed animals (livestock) and free-living animals (wildlife), all of whom we classify as oppressed populations. Intersectional feminist, de-colonising and green social work ideas are discussed in relation to disaster social work. We argue that social work needs to include nonhuman animals in its consideration of person-in-environment, and offer an expanded version of feminist intersectionality inclusive of species as a way forward.

Rapid assessments of needs and health status have been conducted by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in natural disaster settings for gathering information about the status of affected populations during emergencies. A review of eight such assessments (6 from hurricanes, 1 from an ice storm, and 1 from an earthquake) examines current methods and applications, and describes the use of results by policy makers so assessments in post-disaster settings can be improved. Because the results of assessments greatly influence the nature of relief activities, a review can: 1) ascertain strengths and limitations; 2) examine the methods; and 3) ascertain the utility of results and their use by policy makers. This review compares assessments for similarities and differences: 1) across disaster types; 2) within similar disasters; 3) by timing when the assessments are conducted; and 4) in domestic and international settings. The review also identifies decision-making actions that result from the assessments, and suggests direction for future applications. Assessments reported in CDC's Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report from 1980 through 1999 were reviewed because they applied a systematic methodology in data collection. They were compared descriptively for study characteristics and content areas. Of 13 assessments identified from six reports, eight were reviewed because they focused on initial assessments, rather than on repeated studies. Of the eight, six pertained to hurricanes; one to an ice storm; and one to an earthquake. Seven (88%) were performed during or after the third day post-impact (range: 1-70 days, median: 7 days). All eight addressed demographics, morbidity, and water availability; seven concerned food, sanitation, and transportation; and six queried access to medical care and electricity. Of the three assessments conducted more than 10 days post-event, two addressed vulnerable children, the elderly, pregnant and lactating women, and migrant workers; two singled storm preparation and evacuation behavior; and one concerned mental health, preventive health care, and social programs. Only one, after an earthquake, asked about disaster-related deaths in household members. Two were international assessments and both were performed at least 60 days post-event. All eight provided estimates of proportions of needs based on survey respondents; none, however, extrapolated the proportions to estimate the magnitude of needs for populations at risk. Of the eight, five confirmed a policy decision, such as accelerating delivery of food supplies. Assessments typically were conducted within 1 week after the precipitating event occurred. Most, performed within 3-10 days, focused on demographics, health status, food and water, and restoration of utilities. Three assessments, conducted > 1 month later, concerned long-term planning. Only one was performed < 72 hours post-event. Five assessments resulted in policy actions to guide relief activities. Increasing application of health assessments provides: 1) impetus for improving current methodologies; 2) standardizing collection instruments; 3) involving other sectors in emergency relief; and 4) ensuring useful information for decision makers.

The fifth year since the deadly Wenchuan earthquake that killed more than 87,000 people will be commemorated in 2013. This article critically reviews the development and charts the direction of disaster social work in China, since the fateful 2008 Wenchuan earthquake jump-started it dramatically. While disaster social work publications, social work projects and organizations surged, young Chinese social workers felt challenged by poor professional recognition, harsh working conditions and limited prospects and support. However, they have been spurred onwards by the resilience and growth of their clients and professional fulfilment in the daunting process of recovery and reconstruction.

The focus of this issue of the Journal of Midwifery and Women's Health is “Low Tech, High Effect: Caring for Women and Infants During Disasters.” By its very nature, a disaster means that events and consequences have occurred that require assistance beyond the ability and resources of the affected population. During the aftermath of a disaster, people from near and far offer their assistance. Some volunteers have much needed skills. Most have good intentions. However, not every pair of helping hands is actually helpful in the midst of a disaster response. The expertise of a health professional may be functional in high-tech environments, but might not be practical in low-resource settings. Communities affected by disasters often experience a period of limited access to resources. Services and supplies may be destroyed or rendered unavailable due to lack of electricity, or unreachable due to closed roads or lack of transportation. When resources are limited, providers need to rely on interventions that use basic or minimal technologies. Disaster training and preparedness can provide health professionals with an orientation for learning new skill sets and adapting existing skills for effective care in low-tech environments. In the midst of the initial chaos and focus on finding affected people and triaging the wounded, life cycle events continue. Pregnant women go into labor and need someone to assist them through the birthing process. Women and their infants deserve safe, effective care in disaster settings. The articles presented here share current knowledge of effective care for women and infants in disaster or low-resource settings. Practitioners are provided with an introduction to disasters, disaster response, and disaster preparedness in the article by Gwen Brumbaugh Keeney, CNM, PhD. Naeema Al Gasseer, RN, PhD, Elissa Dresden, RN, ND, Gwen Brumbaugh Keeney, CNM, PhD, and Nicole Warren, CNM, PhD(c), focus the readers' attention on health service and policy issues affecting women and infants in complex humanitarian emergencies, such as war and drought. Judith O'Heir, NM, MN, describes approaches for maternal and reproductive health service delivery in refugee and displaced populations. Doulas or supportive birth companions, providing low-tech interventions that benefit childbearing women in stressful circumstances, are discussed by Debra Pascali-Bonaro, CD, CPPD, BEd, and Mary Kroeger, CNM, MPH. Riccardo Davanzo, MD, PhD, provides the evidence-based data for neonatal interventions that can be used in low-resource settings. In-depth descriptions of neurohormonal stress responses and mediating multimodal interventions for infants, including massage, acoustic, and rocking stimuli, are presented by Rosemary White-Traut, RN, DNSc. Additional resources are listed to facilitate access to disaster literature and information about organizations involved in disaster policy, service delivery, and training. Two informational resources are provided for clinicians to use and/or share with parents and other disaster responders: 1) a delineation of basic steps to manage a birth when there are no skilled attendants, and 2) strategies for assisting young children to help them cope with their disaster experiences. Midwives and women's health nurses can draw upon their existing knowledge and skills that use minimal intervention to achieve positive outcomes. The interventions presented in this issue are consistent with being “with women” to facilitate optimum care and perinatal outcomes, whether in high-resource, developed country birthing facilities or low-resource settings, such as developing country rural health posts or communities affected by disasters. Knowing what simple technologies are effective and developing the skills to implement those interventions can increase the quality of care in the midst of adverse circumstances.

The final chapter of the book Social Work During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Glocal Perspectives and Implications for the Future of Social Work brings together the empirical chapters of the book and aims to create an updated overall picture of what we know about social work during the pandemic through both theoretical frameworks and recent research. The final chapter starts from the social-ecological conditions under which social workers, social work communities, and organisations have had to work during the COVID-19 pandemic. These conditions include various factors that may increase or decrease the epidemiological exposure and social vulnerability of individuals, communities, and societies in the context of the pandemic and its countermeasures. After this, the chapters of the book will be compiled, and the results of the empirical analyses will be summarised. This view will be complemented by utilising the latest social work research, reflecting on this in relation to general social theory frameworks, resilience studies, and disaster social work. The end of the chapter aims to summarise what we have learned from the pandemic, to make visible the limitations of the book, and to create an overview of future challenges.

Summary Social workers in China have been involved significantly in the response to the COVID-19 pandemic. This article introduces the innovative interdisciplinary remote networking framework which both provides a guide for medical and community social workers’ involvement during the COVID-19 outbreaks, and also to support interdisciplinary collaboration with the aim of helping individuals and families in need during the pandemic. Findings The implementation of interdisciplinary remote networking, developed by Chinese social workers, has effectively addressed the different domains of need experienced by the affected population and has established a new approach for social work in the field of health. The framework also provides an effective model for setting up a targeted and sustained service system that links social workers with psychological and medical resources, which capitalize on social resources to buffer the negative impacts of the disease. Social workers play an essential role during such a public health emergency, providing critical services for patients and families, medical workers, self-quarantined residents, and the general population. Applications The service mode of interdisciplinary remote networking, based on the frontline experiences of social work interventions in China, may serve as a framework for combating COVID-19 in other countries. The framework is among the initiatives that provide transferrable skills to social work practitioners working in network-based social work services during public health emergencies. Thus, the framework presents implications for future practice development in both disaster social work and also public health social work.

Since the “5.12” 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, disaster social work has been developing gradually in mainland China. This study evaluated a university-led, project-based social work intervention following the “8.12” 2015 Tianjin explosion disaster. Document analysis, participant observation, and in-depth individual interview methods were used. Three types of interviewees ( N = 14) recruited via purposive sampling participated in semistructured interviews. According to the evaluative framework of trauma-informed social work for the old population, the social work intervention achieved the connectedness dimension of recovery of target population and partially satisfied the meaning, hope and empowerment demand. Nevertheless, the safety, identity and continuity dimensions of recovery were lack and the meaning dimension was weak. Discussion and implications for future disaster social work were summarized.

There is a crucial need for teamwork in disaster management. Gaps in collaborative efforts resulted in significant loss of life and property during recent disasters. Such losses could have been minimized with enhanced teamwork. Unfortunately, the current US healthcare system fosters a fractured structure where health professions work in isolated silos. While coordinated disaster management has done much to overcome this, the silo mentality still inhibits maximal achievement toward the four phases of emergency and disaster preparedness and response. Since 2007, Western University of Health Sciences (Western U) has embarked upon an initiative focusing upon the concept of patient-centered, collaborative care in students from the beginning of the clinical education process. The intent of the program is to instill in all students non-technical competencies that promote teamwork such as communication, collaboration, and understanding scope of practice. The long term vision is to develop a three phase program (case based, team training and clinical experience) that will take the student through an awareness level to an application level of the competencies. The second phase of the program utilizes the TeamSTEPPS® training to instill these competencies in students. The application and assessment of the teaching points will be through community and patient safety exercises that include topics such as disaster preparedness and response. In conjunction with the TeamSTEPPS® training, the students from the nine professional programs (DO, PA, PT, PharmD, Graduate Nursing, Vet Med, Dental, Podiatry, and Optometry) will also be exposed to principles and practices of disaster response. By intensifying teamwork principles as the basis of disaster preparedness, the response pool for disaster response will be amplified, and future healthcare practitioners will be more aware of teamwork strategies necessary in a disaster setting. The intent of this presentation is to introduce this academic model including early outcome data.

Project Liberty: New York's Crisis Counseling Program Created in the Aftermath of September 11, 2001

Among the many influences Hurricane Katrina had on emergency management, the influence on disaster case management processes, practices, and policies was significant. The recovery challenges imposed by the event prompted a number of reform activities related to disaster case management in the USA. While these reforms led to notable improvements, the problems of weak capacity and poor integration continue to hinder effective program development. These lingering problems have shifted attention to the international domain as means to not only understand how Hurricane Katrina has impacted disaster case management on a global level but also identify lessons learned from international disaster events. As such, a systematic review of the international literature on disaster social work and case management was conducted. These results shed light on the roles and processes of social work, the use of psychosocial interventions, and the barriers to service delivery in the international disaster context.

Disaster psychiatry and homelessness: creating a mental health COVID-19 response