Post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) and taurine combination improves anaerobic performance in highly trained wrestlers: a double-blind, randomized, crossover study.

Post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) is a physiological phenomenon that refers to an acute excitation of the neuromuscular system following intense exercise that ends in enhanced physical performance in a subsequent bout of exercise. The scientific literature has primarily examined the effectiveness of PAPE alone or combined with caffeine (CAF) intake in all-out tests lasting ≤10 s, as the effect of PAPE is transitory. The aim of the present study was to determine the effect of a protocol to induce PAPE alone or in combination with caffeine intake on the 30 s Wingate Anaerobic Test in highly trained boxers. Twenty-five male and highly trained boxers (mean age: 20 ± 1 years) participated in a double-blind, randomized crossover study consisting of three different experimental conditions: (i) control (CON), with no substance intake and no PAPE protocol before the Wingate Anaerobic Test; (ii) PAPE + PLA, involving the intake of a placebo 60 min before and a PAPE protocol comprising a 10 s cycling sprint overloaded with 8.5% of the participants' body weight 10 min before the Wingate Anaerobic Test; and (iii) PAPE + CAF, involving the intake of 3 mg/kg of caffeine 60 min before and the same PAPE protocol used in the (ii) protocol before the Wingate Anaerobic Test. In all conditions, the participants performed the 30 s version of the Wingate Anaerobic Test with a load equivalent to 7.5% of their body weight, while the cycle ergometer setting was replicated. Immediately following the Wingate test, heart rate (HR), the rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and blood lactate concentration (Bla) were measured. In comparison to CON, PAPE + PLA enhanced mean power (p = 0.024; Effect size [ES] = 0.37) and total work (p = 0.022; ES = 0.38) during the Wingate test, accompanied by an increase in post-test blood lactate concentration (p < 0.01; ES = 0.83). In comparison to CON, PAPE + CAF enhanced mean power (p = 0.001; ES = 0.57), peak power (p = 0.013; ES = 0.57), total work (p = 0.001; ES = 0.53), post-test blood lactate concentration (p < 0.001; ES = 1.43) and participants' subjective perception of power (p = 0.041). There were no differences in any variable between PAPE + PLA and PAPE + CAF. In summary, a PAPE protocol that involves a 10 s all-out sprint 10 min before the Wingate Anaerobic Test was effective in enhancing Wingate mean power in highly trained boxers. The addition of 3 mg/kg of caffeine to the PAPE protocol produced an effect on mean power of a higher magnitude than PAPE alone, and it enhanced peak power along with participants' subjective perception of power. From a practical point of view, PAPE before exercise seems to be an effective approach for increasing Wingate performance in highly trained boxers, while the addition of caffeine can increase some benefits, especially peak power.

This study investigated the effects of ischemic preconditioning (IPC), post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE), and their combination (IPC+PAPE) on anaerobic performance in trained male athletes. In a randomized crossover design, participants performed a Wingate test following four distinct warm-up protocols. Statistical analysis revealed that only the PAPE protocol significantly improved maximum and relative maximum power compared to the control group (p &lt; 0.05). In contrast, IPC alone did not affect substantially any power parameter, and the combined IPC+PAPE protocol demonstrated no synergistic effect over PAPE alone. These findings confirm that PAPE is an effective short-term strategy for enhancing explosive anaerobic performance. From a practical standpoint, this study suggests that while coaches can effectively utilize PAPE protocols to acutely boost power output, combining them with IPC may not provide additional benefits for Wingate performance, thereby questioning their time efficiency in a warm-up setting.

Introduction. Badminton is characterized by intermittent power actions including high-intensity jumps, turns, strikes and lunges. Power, maximal strength, agility and speed endurance are of paramount importance for varied formats of badminton. Resistance priming (RP) aids in attaining post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) in muscular activities. The study was aimed at examining the potential effect of resistance priming exercise on improving anaerobic variables in college badminton players measured at various time points. Material and Methods. Using a repeated measures design with within subject comparisons, the impact of resistance priming exercises on speed, jump height, agility, peak power, peak velocity and decline in power was examined at different points of time. Data were collected at the baseline, 30 minutes after, 8 hours and 24 hours following the intervention. SEMO agility test, 20 m sprint test, Kistler Force platform with MARS software and Wingate Anaerobic Power tests were used to test the players. Results. Repeated measures ANOVA determined that mean agility (F(3,15) = 4.24, p = 0.013, partial η2 = 0.458), peak power (F(3,15) = 11.46, p = 0.000, partial η2 = 0.696) and decline in power (F(3,15) = 5.525, p = 0.009, partial η2 = 0.525) scores differed significantly across four time points. There were no significant differences in jump height (p = 0.174), speed (p = 0.14) and peak velocity (p = 0.874). Conclusions. Morning RP with exercises targeting upper body, lower body and full body induced a significant impact on agility, peak power and decline in power. The improvements were maximum eight hours following the intervention. Future studies may be conducted by incorporating Electromyography (EMG) analysis to examine the muscle activation as well.

This study aimed to determine the effect of complex training (CT) on post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) effect magnitude, 5- and 30-m linear sprint, 5-0-5 change-of-direction (COD), back squat (BS) and hip thrust (HT) one-repetition maximum [1RM], and jumping performance (countermovement jump [CMJ], drop jump [DJ], and broad jump [BJ]). The PAPE effect was elicited before and after each intervention by 3 BS repetitions at 90% 1RM and verified by CMJ performance. Twenty-four soccer players were randomly and equally assigned to 6 weeks of either medium (MED; [65-70%1RM]) or high-intensity (HIGH; [80-85%1RM]) CT performed twice a week. The HIGH group significantly improved their 5-m time (p < 0.001; effect size [ES] = 1.91), 30-m time (p = 0.001; ES = 0.66), BS 1RM (p = 0.019; ES = 0.19) and HT 1RM (p = 0.035; ES = 0.26), BJ length (p = 0.012; ES = 0.62) and DJ height (p = 0.002; ES = 0.57) from pre- to post-intervention. The MED group significantly improved their 5-m time (p = 0.004; ES = 0.52), BS 1RM (p = 0.019; ES = 0.36) and BJ length (p = 0.012; ES = 0.7). Significantly shorter 5-m sprint time (p = 0.001; ES = 1.63) and greater DJ height percentage increase (p < 0.001; ES = 1.81) were found in the HIGH group compared to the MED group. Moreover, a significant main effect of the group, indicating a higher PAPE response in the MED group compared to the HIGH group for CMJ peak power output, was observed at both pre- and post-CT intervention (p = 0.045; η 2 = 0.171). Six weeks of either medium or high-intensity CT could be used to enhance jumping performance, linear speed and lower-body maximum strength among soccer players. Superior improvements in acceleration and DJ might be expected after high-intensity CT than medium intensity. Medium-intensity CT can improve PAPE response.

Post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) is a key objective following regular warm-up routines, especially in sports that rely heavily on sprinting speed and power. Rugby is a team sport characterized by a range of repeated high-intensity efforts, irrespective of positional roles or match demands. In this study, we examined and compared the effects of two different conditioning activities (CAs) on the power- and speed-related abilities of National Team rugby players. Thirteen male rugby union players sequentially performed countermovement jump (CMJ), 30 m sprint, and change-of-direction (COD) tests (pre-testing session) 5 min before executing either one set of six repetitions of 45 cm drop jumps or one set of six repetitions of flywheel eccentric-overload squats. In addition to the sport-specific tests, the muscle mechanical properties of the athletes were also assessed through the use of tensiomyography (TMG). At post-testing sessions conducted 5 and 10 min after the PAPE protocols, no significant changes were observed in any of the assessed variables, either in positions as backs or forwards. However, some meaningful variations were detected at the individual level when using the “true-changes” analysis. Despite some positive individual changes, it can be concluded that these specific protocols did not elicit the expected responses typically observed in other team-sport athletes. Practitioners are encouraged to implement more comprehensive (but not exhaustive) and tailored PAPE interventions prior to training sessions and competitions.

This study examined the post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) effects of low-load conditioning (30% of 1 repetition maximum (RM) squat) with blood flow restriction (BFR) or whole-body vibration (WBV) only, and with both BFR and WBV on anaerobic performance. Forty anaerobically-trained men were randomly allocated into one of the four groups: CON, BFR, WBV or BFR+WBV, and completed five visits: Visit 1: 1RM test and familiarization session; Visit 2: Wingate test; and Visits 3 to 5: conditioning according to the group assignment, followed by a Wingate test after different rest intervals: 4 (T4), 8 (T8) or 12 (T12) min on each visit, respectively, in randomized order. Capillary blood lactate samples were collected at the 3rd, the 5th, the 8th and the 10th min after the Wingate test. Analysis revealed significant interaction effects between group and time on peak blood lactate concentration (p < 0.019). The within-group analysis showed that compared to PRE, 1) mean power (mean-P), mean power/body mass (mean-P/BM) and total work (TW) of all three groups were significantly greater at T8 (p < 0.045); 2) peak power and peak power/body mass of the BFR and the WBV group were greater at T8 (p < 0.024); 3) minimal power of the BFR+WBV group was significantly lower, and fatigue slopes were significantly greater at T8 (p < 0.032); and 4) mean-P, mean-P/BM and TW of the BFR+WBV group were significantly greater at T4 (p < 0.015). Low-load conditioning combined with BFR or WBV may induce potential PAPE to enhance anaerobic performance, and the combined-type of the protocol may induce such benefits in a faster time fashiont.

The objective of this research was to compare the effect of Post-Activation Performance Enhancement (PAPE) exerted on the back squat (BS) versus the barbell hip thrust (HT) on the sprint performance (5- and 10-m). 17 male amateur rugby players participated in the study (age 22.14 ± 2.52 years; body mass 81.06 ± 9.6 kg; height 1.78 ± 0.05 m). All participants performed a dynamic maximum strength test (3RM) in BS and HT at maximum speed. Two randomized sessions were performed inducing PAPE using BS or HT trough three series with three repetitions at 85% 1RM eight minutes before the sprint tests. An ANOVA of repeated measurement, found no differences in the time for 5-m (F = 0.398, P = 0.537, η2p = 0.024) or 10-m (F = 2.589, P = 0.127, η2p = 0.139). There were no significant differences in the Protocol effect between HT and BS in 5-m or 10-m (F = 2.963, P = 0.104, η2p = 0.156 and F = 1.472, P = 0.243 η2p = 0.084, respectively). There were also no differences in the Time x Protocol interaction at 5-m (F = 0.001, P = 0.976, η2p < 0.001) or 10-m (F = 4.174, P = 0.058, η2p = 0.207). The effect size obtained in the results of the sprint tests was small in both exercises (ES < 0.2). None of the BS or HT exercises performed with heavy load induced a significant PAPE phenomenon on the ability to sprint in rugby players.

The present study examined the effects of post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) induced by different velocity loss (VL) thresholds on lower-limb explosive performance in sprinters under velocity-based resistance training (VBT). A secondary aim was to identify the optimal VL thresholds (5% and 15%) and recovery time points (PRE, 4, 8, 12, and 16 min) for maximizing PAPE responses. Using a randomized crossover design, fifteen male sprinters completed two PAPE protocols consisting of deep squats performed at 85% 1RM with two VL thresholds (5% and 15%). Countermovement jump (CMJ) performance (jump height, relative power, and vertical impulse) and 30 m sprint performance (total time used and average speed) were assessed at each time point. The total number of squat repetitions completed under each VL condition was also recorded. In the 5% VL condition, significant improvements were observed in CMJ jump height (P = 0.01), relative power (P = 0.009), vertical impulse (P = 0.016) at 8 min post-intervention. In addition, both total sprint time and mean speed showed significant changes at 4 min (P = 0.014; P = 0.030) and 8 min (P = 0.011; P = 0.006). In contrast, no significant changes in CMJ variables were found at any time point in the 15% VL condition. However, total sprint time and mean speed were significantly improved at 8 min post-intervention (P = 0.002; P = 0.004). The total number of squat repetitions was significantly lower in the 5% VL condition compared with the 15% VL condition (P = 0.003 vs. P = 0.042). Under two sets of deep squats at 85% 1RM, 5% VL was associated with CMJ improvement at 8 min and 30 m sprint improvement at 4 and 8 min with fewer repetitions, whereas 15% VL improved sprint performance mainly at 8 min with no clear CMJ enhancement.

ObjectiveThis systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to investigate the acute effects of flywheel resistance training (FRT) on jump and sprint performance, and to examine the moderating roles of rest intervals and inertial loads.MethodsA systematic search was conducted across seven electronic databases (Web of Science, PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Scopus, CINAHL, Embase, Cochrane) from inception to February 22, 2025. The quality of included randomized controlled trials (including crossover designs) was assessed using the Cochrane RoB 2 tool. The certainty of evidence was evaluated using the GRADE approach. Data were synthesized using random-effects meta-analysis in Review Manager 5.4.1, with subgroup analyses performed for rest intervals and inertial loads. The study protocol was registered in PROSPERO (CRD420251029079).ResultsNine crossover trials were included. Overall, FRT had a small, significant positive effect on CMJ performance [SMD = 0.32, 95% CI: (0.03, 0.60)], but no significant effect on overall sprint performance [SMD = -0.03, 95% CI: (-0.29, 0.22)]. Subgroup analysis revealed enhancement effect on CMJ at rest intervals of 8–12 min [SMD = 0.55, 95% CI: (0.17, 0.93)] and when using inertial loads > 0.05 kg·m² [SMD = 0.48, 95% CI: (0.09, 0.88)]. No significant subgroup effects were found for sprint performance.ConclusionFlywheel resistance training induces a small, acute enhancement in jump performance, primarily through a post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) mechanism, with significant effects observed at 8–12 min post-exercise. Greater benefits for jumping occurred with inertial loads > 0.05 kg·m², but no significant acute effect was observed for sprint performance. These findings are limited by low evidence certainty and restricted generalizability, necessitating further research with larger, diverse samples and standardized protocols.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13102-026-01553-8.

This study investigated PAPE effects of two conditioning activities (CA) and recovery times on the peak jumping power (PP) of elite female volleyball athletes. Players performed CA separately: three sets of three repetitions of back squats with 85% of 1RM (BS) or one set of five depth drops (DD). PP was measured with countermovement (CMJ) and squat jumps (SJ) before (pre-test) and two minutes (post-test 1) and six hours (post-test 2) after each CA. BS significantly reduced PP at post-test 1 (CMJ and SJ: p < 0.04, d between -0.36 and -0.28). At post-test 2, following BS, PP for both jump forms was significantly greater than at post-test 1 (p < 0.001, d between 0.54 and 0.55) and at pre-test (p < 0.048, d between 0.21 and 0.30). DD increased PP significantly (CMJ and SJ p < 0.05, d between 0.40 and 0.41) relative to pre-test at post-test 2 (there was no significant difference between pre-test and post-test 1). Comparing BS with DD, there were no significant differences (p > 0.05). The greatest PAPE effects were observed six hours after BS. CA are recommended for female athletes to improve jumping performance, but individual responses should be determined prior to use.

We investigated the influence of anaerobic speed reserve (ASR) on post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE). Twenty-two endurance runners and triathletes were evaluated for maximum sprinting speed (MSS) and countermovement jump (CMJ) before (non-fatigued) and after (fatigued) an incremental running test. They were allocated in LASR (low-ASR) and HASR (high-ASR) groups for comparisons between conditions. HASR showed greater CMJ and MSS (both p≤0.005) performances, with enhanced CMJ in fatigued condition (p≤0.008). Significant correlations were found between ASR, CMJ, and MSS in both conditions (p≤0.01) for the entire sample, and between ∆CMJ and ∆MSS (p≤0.001) in LASR. Our results show that ASR profile influences PAPE.

Objectives: The objective of this study was to examine the neuromuscular fatigue response to playing in a singles pickleball tournament, as measured by performance on a countermovement jump test (CMJ). We hypothesized that players would exhibit neuromuscular fatigue after the tournament. Methods: Six adult pickleball players (five male and one female, M ± SD: 40.2 ± 10.1 years old, height = 178.7 ± 12.3 cm, body mass = 85.4 ± 16.7 kg) participated in a 15 game singles pickleball tournament. Prior to the tournament, everyone completed the CMJ to assess lower body strength and power on paired Hawkin Dynamics force plates. After the tournament, players repeated the CMJ. Mixed-effects regression modeling was used to examine changes in key outcomes measured from the CMJ. Results: All nine outcomes from the CMJ significantly changed from pre to post-tournament (e.g., means for net impulse increased from 2.32 ± 0.22 to 2.40 ± 0.18 N·s, p = 0.0006; RSImod increased from 0.28 ± 0.07 to 0.33 ± 0.05, p = 0.0001, and propulsive peak power increased from 41.79 ± 6.14 to 44.34 ± 4.70 W/kg, p < 0.0001). All the changes demonstrated improved performance in the CMJ test. Seven out of the nine outcomes demonstrated a large effect size by the partial-eta square statistic, with η2-partial of 0.153–0.487, and three key outcomes (RSImod, propulsive peak power, and propulsive mean power) also demonstrated large effect sizes by the F2 statistic (F2 of 0.4603–0.9495). Conclusions: Contrary to our hypothesis, participants did not demonstrate significant neuromuscular fatigue. In contrast, they showed significant improvements in CMJ performance. It is possible that adequate rest between games prevented neuromuscular fatigue; alternately, singles pickleball may not provide enough stimulus in the lower body musculature to induce neuromuscular fatigue.

Countermovement jump performance was examined in response to acute neuromuscular (NM) fatigue (study I) and chronic training (study II) in elite snowboard cross (SBX) athletes, through both typical (countermovement jump [CMJ]-TYP) and alternative (CMJ-ALT) CMJ variables. Seven (4 men and 3 women) elite (Olympic-level) SBX athletes participated in study I, and 5 of the same athletes (2 men and 3 women) participated in study II. Countermovement jump variables relating to force, velocity, power, and time were measured during both eccentric and concentric jump phases, with CMJ-TYP variables reflecting CMJ output and CMJ-ALT variables reflecting CMJ mechanics. In study I, CMJ performance was assessed before and after a fatiguing lower-body exercise protocol, and in study II, CMJ performance was examined before and after a 19-week structured training block. Meaningful differences in CMJ performance were examined using the magnitude of change (effect sizes [ES]) for group and individual changes. Acute fatigue decreased peak force and eccentric function, while the duration of the jump increased. The structured training block increased peak force and eccentric function, while jump duration markedly decreased. In both study I and study II, the largest ES were associated with CMJ-ALT variables. The CMJ test seems a suitable monitoring tool in elite SBX athletes for the detection of both acute fatigue and training-adaptation. Compared with CMJ output, CMJ mechanics exhibits more marked and divergent changes after both acute NM fatigue and a structured training block. CMJ-ALT variables should therefore be incorporated into CMJ analysis.

Background and Objectives: We evaluated the effect of an eleven-day altitude training camp on aerobic and anaerobic fitness in trained adolescent runners. Materials and Methods: Twenty adolescent (14–18 yrs) middle- and long-distance runners (11 males and 9 females; 16.7 ± 0.8 yrs), with at least two years of self-reported consistent run training, participated in this study. Eight of the subjects (4 females/4 males) constituted the control group, whereas twelve subjects (5 females/7 males) took part in a structured eleven-day altitude training camp, and training load was matched between groups. Primary variables of interest included changes in aerobic (VO2max) and anaerobic (30 s Wingate test) power. We also explored the relationships between running velocity and blood lactate levels before and after the altitude training camp. Results: Following 11 days of altitude training, desirable changes (p < 0.01) in VO2max (+13.6%), peak relative work rate (+9.6%), and running velocity at various blood lactate concentrations (+5.9%–9.6%) were observed. Meanwhile, changes in Wingate anaerobic power (+5.1%) were statistically insignificant (p > 0.05). Conclusions: Short duration altitude appears to yield meaningful improvements in aerobic but not anaerobic power in trained adolescent endurance runners.

This study examined the effect of aerobic capacity on performance, fatigue, and heart rate recovery following high-intensity anaerobic exercise in national-level basketball players. Twenty subjects (19.0 ± 1.7 years, 88.4 ± 8.0 kg, 194.2 ± 6.0 cm, 50.2 ± 3.8 ml·kg·min−1) participated in this investigation. Each subject performed a treadmill test to determine maximal oxygen consumption (Vo2max), a Wingate Anaerobic Power Test (WAnT), and a field test of anaerobic power common to basketball players (line drill). The line drill is a continuous 143-m sprint with several changes of direction. The line drill was performed 3 times (T1, T2, and T3) with a 2-minute passive rest between each sprint. A moderate correlation was seen between Vo2max and mean power of the WAnT (r = 0.57). However, no significant relationship was observed between Vo2max and the fatigue index in either the WAnT (r = −0.23) or line drill (r = 0.01). Little to no correlation was observed between Vo2max and heart rate recovery in the WAnT (r = −0.22) and line drill (r = −0.04, r = −0.19, and r = −0.30 in T1, T2, and T3, respectively). These results showed little to no relationship between aerobic capacity and recovery indices from high-intensity exercise in basketball players.