Plugged versus unplugged: effects on kindergarten children’s computational thinking and interest in programming

The aim of this study was to investigate psychometric related issues of the TechCheck-K instrument for assessing the computational thinking skills of Turkish kindergarteners as well as explore whether age in month and gender made a significant difference in their general and domain-specific computational thinking skills. For this purpose, data were collected from 352 kindergarten-aged children attending public kindergartens in Türkiye. Item response and comparative analysis were used to analyse collected data. Item response results indicated that the TechCheck-K instrument had good psychometric properties, was suitable for use with Turkish kindergarten children and was more powerful in discriminating kindergarten children with moderate and low ability levels. It was also shown in the results that there was a significant difference between three age groups in months regarding participants’ general computational thinking skills. Significant differences in the general computational thinking skills were also observed within boys and girls according to their age in month. Specifically, boys and girls in the older month groups had statistically significantly higher mean scores. There was a significant difference in the domain-specific powerful ideas of computational thinking skills with respect to age in month. Finally, implications and directions for future research were discussed.

Background Computational thinking and its underlying problem-solving processes have gained more attention in research and education with today’s rapid digitization and development of computers. Exploring the cognitive foundations of computational thinking is crucial for developing effective educational programs and identifying those who lag behind their peers in their understanding of computational principles. Objectives The current study explores the relationship between computational thinking and mental processes in early childhood. In particular, we examined the influence of executive functions on coding and its specific components (algorithm design and debugging) in kindergarten children. Method A total of 62 five- to six-year-olds performed an unplugged coding task as well as computerized executive functions assessments. Computerized tasks measured short-term memory, working memory, inhibition, and switching. Findings Results showed that overall coding was associated with switching, algorithm design with working memory, and debugging with switching. Implications These findings support the componential nature of coding (thus computational thinking) and draw attention to the different cognitive underpinnings of the components. This should be taken into consideration by educators when designing new learning materials or curricula.

Computational Thinking (CT) and the understanding of how programs are being executed is internationally acknowledging as a necessity for today's students and citizens of tomorrow. Despite the multifaceted nature of CT, the introduction of CT and associate concepts such as coding is regarded as developmental acceptable for preschool and kindergarten children. For a decade, there has been a focus on educational reform in the form of educational apps. For young children, an influx of mobile apps offering various interfaces and styles promote themselves as having educational value to introduce children aged 5–7 to essential CT, coding, and problem-solving skills. On the contrary, little is known about the educational value of these apps. The fast pace at which developers produce these apps and the breadth of the available apps have gone beyond what it is reasonable for researchers and experts in the domain to evaluate. This article presents a literature review on how the ScratchJr app affects young children's CT, coding, and general literacy skills. The literature review includes 18 studies. The main conclusion is that although ScratchJr is not a panacea, it seems to be a helpful app that positively affects children's CT and coding skills.

In this pilot study we created and evaluated a new version of the TechCheck Computational Thinking (CT) assessment designed specifically for kindergarten students. The original version of TechCheck was validated in first and second graders and consists of 15 multiple choice unplugged challenges drawn from six CT domains. The kindergarten version, called TechCheck-K, consists of similar unplugged challenges but reduces the number of response choices from four to three and uses exclusively non-verbal material in the responses to accommodate younger, pre-literate children. We administered TechCheck-K to N =89 kindergarten students from four schools, including 45 boys and 44 girls with no coding experience. Participants completed the assessment in an average of 23.43 minutes. TechCheck-K scores were normally distributed (M =8.26, SD =2.33). Mean scores were numerically higher in boys (M =8.71, SD = 2.69) than girls (M =8.05, SD = 2.07). The difference between genders was not significant. The pattern of correct responses to the 15 TechCheck-K items correlated (r =.76) with the pattern observed in first and second graders on the original TechCheck, providing evidence that comparable CT constructs are measured by the two versions of the instrument. Results of this pilot study indicate that TechCheck-K has acceptable characteristics for assessment of CT in kindergarten children.

Computational Thinking (CT) and coding skills are internationally acknowledged as necessary for today's students and 21st century citizens. Nowadays, despite the multifaceted nature of CT, the introduction of CT and associated concepts is regarded as developmentally acceptable for preschool and kindergarten children. Furthermore, there is a considerable influx of software offering various interfaces and styles which facilitate the introduction of children aged four to six to essential CT, coding, and problem-solving skills. Although the creators of these environments claim that they bear educational value, there is no formal or scientifically documented evaluative system certifying this value. For instance, the fast-paced developers produce apps, and the breadth of the available apps has gone beyond what is reasonable for researchers and experts in the domain to evaluate. This article presents a literature review on the available software to encourage preschoolers’ introduction to CT, coding and general literacy skills.

Training pre-service teachers in their own computational thinking is critical to building with them the discourse of CT didactics and its inclusion in the classroom with children in kindergarten and primary education. This research raises possible solutions and offers the results of an intervention carried out with 37 students in the 2nd year of the bachelor’s degree in Education. An intensive CT proposal, through a Scratch project, allows all students to reach a sufficient level of CT, regardless of their previous experience and initial level. All students improve their mastery of CT skills: Those who have a lower initial level can develop it from the ground up; those who already have a high level at the beginning improve their efficiency in solving questions where they have to mobilize CT.

Computational thinking (CT) activities are increasingly being integrated into early childhood schools. We focus on studying children’s learning using an “unplugged” (non-computational) learning unit that considers a teacher’s knowledge and classroom space and affords seamless adaptation into the classroom given the objects used in the unit and activities that are reminiscent of classic class activities and games. The gap in research that we address is the focus on unplugged activities, which are less common. A learning unit with card games was developed, focusing on two fundamental sorting algorithms: Linear Sort and Category Sort. Sixteen kindergarten children participated in the study. Their CT skills were assessed using a pretest-intervention-posttest single group research design. An increase in CT skills was observed from an intermediate to a sophisticated level; the number of attempts to completion decreased and the average number of attributes the children could sort with increased. Two children’s interactions with the activities were analyzed in depth and compared. It was found that two concepts related to algorithms had to be learned separately and sequentially: multiple repeating actions and a stopping rule for repeating actions. With advanced challenges that involved multiple attributes and more than one sorting algorithm, children needed significant support.

Constructionism has different meanings for what the learner is constructing, a concrete object or an idea, and whether this construction is done through the use of digital technology. In the embodied‐based environment created in this study, children carry out or “construct” a series of actions, a performance, which allows them to solve the task of directing an already programmed robot to a particular target. The activity was based on an adaptation of the Little Red Riding Hood narrative. Children played the role of rangers (instead of hunters) who had to coordinate their actions in order to help a robot (an mBot characterized as a Robot‐Wolf) find Grandma’s laboratory, so she could fix its GPS. The children wore boots, which were used to interact with the Robot‐Wolf. The main question we addressed was how to create this embodied‐based environment for kindergarten children, and how to identify the actions children performed and the concepts they used in this construction. The research was based on the Socially‐Aware Design, and the study was conducted in a school setting for kindergarten students. 26 children (11F, 15 M), between 4 and 5 years old, participated in this study. The children’s activities were recorded and analysed using the Grounded Theory methodology. The results show that the children’s performative sequence of actions is distinct from the hands‐on, heads‐in processes that are part of classical constructionist environments. For the children, the process and the product of their (body) “dance” were underlying their movement (perceiving and acting), working together so as to accomplish the given task in the environment. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Constructionism has shown as a way for learning via materialization of tangible objects or construction of ideas. There are very few examples of constructionist learning environments for kindergarten children to interact with digital technology. What this paper adds The creation of the constructionist embodied‐based environment for supporting kindergarten children interacting with digital technologies. The constructionist embodied‐based environment created was effective in supporting kindergarten children interacting with an already programmed robot. Children’s performative sequence of actions reveals no separation of the hands‐on, heads‐in processes as in classical constructionist environments. The creation of a constructionist environment in which children can act and collaborate to construct a series of actions which allow them to solve a specific challenge. Implications for practice and/or policy Concepts like leadership and anticipation which were embodied are expressed by the children help to understand how the robot‐based activity can help children to construct knowledge related to, for example, computational thinking.

Computational thinking (CT) skills are becoming increasingly crucial in education, particularly in early childhood education. Pre coding, which involves hands-on activities with real objects, has been shown to be quite effective in fostering kindergarten children's computational skills. Pre coding, on the other hand, is essential for boosting children’s CT skills, but teachers frequently lack the information necessary to teach these skills successfully. Their successful adoption is hampered by the early childhood education community's lack of interest in CT skills and the sparse application of pre coding techniques. In order to help kindergarten instructors incorporate pre coding into their teaching and learning, this study focuses on defining the elements and activities described in a pre-coding program model. The study reviewed and compiled a list of prior literature’s pre coding elements and activities. Subsequently, the Fuzzy Delphi Method (FDM) was utilised to refine and validate these elements and activities. Finally, the data collected from 11 selected experts relevant to this field of study were analysed using FDM to examine consensus. The results showed that the eight identified elements and 24 pre coding activities fulfilled the following required criteria: a threshold value (d) of lower than or equal to 0.2, an agreement percentage over 75%, and a fuzzy score value (A) higher than 0.5. These findings demonstrated the suitability of the identified pre coding elements and activities for integration into a pre coding program model for kindergarten children. In summary, this study provides valuable guidance for kindergarten teachers in implementing practical pre coding activities to enhance CT skills among children.

Background and Context: There is a need for early childhood assessments of computational thinking (CT). However, there is not consensus on a guiding framework, definition, or set of proxies in which to measure CT. We are addressing this problem by using Evidence Centered Design (ECD) to develop an assessment of kindergarten-aged children’s CT. Objective: To present a design case on the development of the assessment, specifically the algorithmic thinking (AT) tasks and to share validity evidence that emerged. Method: We focus on the AT sub-component of CT and present the principled assessment design process using ECD. Findings: Our operationalization of CT includes spatial reasoning as a sub-component. Pilot results showed an acceptable internal consistency reliability for the AT items and critical design decisions that contributed to validity evidence. Implications: An important contribution of this work is the inclusion of spatial reasoning in our definition of early childhood CT.

Computational thinking and tinkering: Exploration of an early childhood robotics curriculum

This chapter presents a research program that uses robotics as a powerful tool to engage Kindergarten children in developing computational thinking and learning about the engineering design process. Using an ethnographic analysis of an experience in a Kindergarten classroom at the Jewish Community Day School (JCDS), a pluralistic school in Watertown, MA, in which children worked with robotics as a way to explore issues of identity, the chapter highlights both developmental and technological considerations that need to be addressed when engaging young children with robotic activities. This project used an innovative hybrid tangible programming system composed of interlocking wooden blocks, called CHERP, specifically designed to meet the developmental needs of young children. While many robotic programs highlight building aspects and their relationship to engineering education, the approach presented in this chapter complements this by focusing on programming by teaching powerful ideas from computer science at a very early age.

In recent years, increasing attention has been focused on developing Kindergarten children's acquisition of 21st-century digital skills and competencies. New educational technologies have been created to engage students in computational thinking activities. In addition, the use and teaching of robotics have been increasingly studied in recent years, as research data has shown recommendations and positive outcomes for students and teachers. As global demand for food and non-food products continues to grow, primarily driven by population and income growth, the challenge of addressing resource depletion and climate change is also expected to increase. This intervention aims to present the global food system and food waste phenomenon to toddlers through an educational scenario for kindergarten using educational robotics and STEM methodology.