Planning the operation of Li-ion battery-powered trucks

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper presents an optimal control co-design framework of a parallel electric-hydraulic hybrid powertrain specifically tailored for heavy-duty vehicles. A pure electric powertrain, comprising a rechargeable lithium-ion battery, a highly efficient electric motor, and a single or double-speed gearbox, has garnered significant attention in the automotive sector due to the increasing demand for clean and efficient mobility. However, the state-of-the-art has demonstrated limited capabilities and has struggled to meet the design requirements of heavy-duty vehicles with high power demands, such as a class 8 semi-trailer truck. This is especially evident in terms of a driving range on one battery charge, battery charging time, and load-carrying capacity. These challenges primarily stem from the low power density of lithium-ion batteries and the low energy conversion efficiency of electric motors at low speeds. To address these issues, a recent development is the electric-hydraulic hybrid powertrain. This system includes a hydro-pneumatic accumulator (i.e. a hydraulic energy storage system) and a hydraulic pump/motor (i.e. a hydraulic-mechanical energy conversion system) in addition to all the components of the electric powertrain. The high-level energy control methods of this hybrid powertrain have been extensively studied. In this work, an optimal control co-design framework involving hardware sizing and high-level energy control for a parallel electric-hydraulic hybrid powertrain is addressed. The objective is to maximize overall energy efficiency using a bi-level optimization method. The outer loop seeks optimal sizes for two energy storage systems: the rechargeable lithium-ion battery capacity and the hydro-pneumatic accumulator volume, determining the maximum electric and hydraulic storable energies. Meanwhile, the inner loop aims for optimal energy control with a set of energy storage system sizes using dynamic programming. Numerical studies demonstrate considerable benefits of the proposed control co-design method by applying it to real-world heavy-duty driving cycles. These benefits include reduced electric energy consumption of the lithium-ion battery, potentially allowing for a smaller battery size. Consequently, this increases load-carrying capacity and subjects the rechargeable battery to milder electric stress, thus extending the lifespan. These improvements are achieved through an aggressive use of hydraulic components during regenerative braking and high torque conditions at low vehicle speeds.</div></div>

Regenerative braking is a technique for converting a moving vehicle's kinetic energy into usable form while slowing it down. When an automobile brakes violently, it usually emits heat. If we could conserve energy rather than waste it, that would be amazing, right? That's where regenerative braking technology comes in handy, especially for electric vehicles. It stores the wasted energy in a battery or ultra-capacitor, so it can be used later to start or accelerate the vehicle. In our project, we looked at how effective regenerative braking is during both braking and starting modes. We compared starting the motor with a battery, ultra-capacitor, or a combination of both (HESS), and also analyzed how storing energy during braking works with these systems. Although not all of the regenerated energy is reinvested in the battery, the motor acts as a generator, charging the vehicle's battery. To move the vehicle forward, regenerative braking uses the kinetic energy it temporarily stores during deceleration. We used a lithium-ion battery and ultra-capacitor module energy storage system coupled to a BLDC motor via a converter. These brakes help batteries last longer without needing to be charged externally. They enable efficient power transfer during regenerative braking and acceleration. Our project discusses whether regenerative braking increases or decreases efficiency. of state of charge of battery and ultra- capacitor when starting and braking applied in discharging(in running of motor) and charging(in regenerative braking of motor). And also BLDC motor speed control in starting and braking mode. The model is simulated using MATLAB Simulink software. Keywords: Regenerative braking, kinetic energy, electric vehicles, energy storage, battery, ultra-capacitor, starting mode, braking mode, Hybrid Energy Storage System (HESS), efficiency, motor generator

Effective mitigation of direct and indirect lightning discharges is an important aspect of the reliable operation of any mining operation. Whilst a systematic protection plan can be implemented relatively easily for above-ground operations, the circumstances are rather more complex for underground mines. In addition, underground coal mines present even greater challenges due to the risk of methane ignition. This paper outlines the main variables and transfer mechanisms of relevance to underground mines and then provides some examples of calculations carried out to quantify the dangers that lightning may pose in underground coal mines. The main factors that elevate the risk of lightning in underground coal mining operations are identified, options for mitigation are outlined and one practical mitigation strategy that may be implemented for gas drainage operations is described and verified.

Safety is an element of extreme priority in mining operations; currently many traditional mining countries are investing in the implementation of wireless sensors capable of detecting risk factors. The objective of this research is to contribute to the implementation of sensors for continuous monitoring inside underground mines providing technical parameters for the design of sensor networks applied in underground coal mines. The analyzed of applying these systems in terms of Benefit, Opportunity, Cost and Risk are discussed. Finally, a dynamic assessment of safety at underground mines it is proposed, this approach offers a contribution to design personalized monitoring networks, the experience developed in coal mines provides a tool that facilitates the application development of technology within underground coal mines.

Mining, construction, aquaculture and many other possible uses of the planet's underwater resources will be necessary in the future. Much of our current mineral wealth on the land mass of the planet is becoming depleted. We must turn to the oceans to provide the resources we will require in the future. Presently, we are mining 29% of the planet's surface area deeper and deeper while the 71% which is underwater is basically untouched. As mining underwater is inevitable we must ensure that environmentally we are more responsible than miners have been perceived to be. We have much to learn about our underwater environment. In some cases nature has managed to do what we have not been able to do in our current mining operations. Tube worms have the ability to chemically convert the waste products of volcanics safely into the natural environment. Miners have dreamed about these types of biological solutions to processing waste products. To explore and consider mining in the deep ocean a few basic facts must be considered. Prolonged work in the underwater environment by people will only be done robotically and the need for human intervention is going to be required. This leads to the need to create new mining systems that support multiple machine situations where untethered units can be operated both autonomously and tele-autonomously. Underwater mining in deep ocean environments will require multiple robots of different types to be deployed. This approach while in a different environment is similar to leading edge work already underway in underground mining by the major mining companies. Mining machines thousands of metres below the surface are controlled tele-robotically from surface control rooms. The combination of sophisticated high bandwidth communication, specialized control systems and on-board standard electronics have allowed teleautonomous machines to be utilized into the mining of ore at great depths underground. These tele- robotic techniques have proven successful in underground operations and are currently being considered for open pit mining operations. Underwater conditions while very different from underground conditions for mining are similar when considering the mining robots to be deployed. Where underground rock considerations are rock temperature, pressure, strength and fractures, underwater has similar issues to deal with but the medium changes to a homogenous liquid. This fact from a mining engineer's point-of-view makes water an ideal environment to work in. Moreover, the robotics challenge is easier to deal with as long as teleautonomous techniques can be utilized. Since the needs are nearly identical the solutions should be similar. So how will the underwater mine of the future look from a mining perspective? Mining of the ocean's bottom will likely be done using open pit mining techniques to begin with possibly harvesting mineral richblack smokers, ultimately leading to underground ocean bed mines if the mineral can support economic development and operation. Environmental considerations will be of prime importance as they currently are to the Canadian mining industry. Operations of this style of mining will see tele-robotic control with solid- state underwater robots as an imperative step. While many functions can be done autonomously the most complex tasks will require human intervention. Current teleautonomous submarine operation done using umbilical cables would be nearly impossible as mining operations would require operating multiple machines. The main robotic constraint would be umbilical management in a multiple machine mining operation. This situation is not suitable for large scale underwater mining operations. This paper reports on the research and development of a new high bandwidth optical networking and communication system to enable untethered operation of tele-robotic submarines and ultimately future underwater mining equipment. The key concept for the development of underwater mining tele-robotics has been the development a new Free Space Optical (FSO) communication network solution to support wireless underwater video and high capacity data streaming from multiple underwater machines to a surface control vessel. This paper reports on considerations for deep ocean mining and the establishment of major robotic mining operations in the oceans.

Underground mining of minerals is accompanied by a change in the rock mass geomechanical situation. This leads to the redistribution of stresses in it and the occurrence of unexpected displacements and deformations of the earth's surface. A significant part of the civil and industrial infrastructure facilities are located within the mine sites, where mining and tunneling operations are constantly conducted. Irrational planning of mining operations can lead to loss of stability and destruction of undermined facilities. Therefore, it is important to study the earth’s surface deformation processes during mining operations, which ensures safe and sustainable operating conditions. The research objective of this paper is to analyse the behaviour of a natural gas pipeline under the influence of underground mining activities, with a particular focus on understanding the effects of horizontal surface deformations and their potential impact on pipeline safety and structural integrity. Its performance and safety are determined on the basis of the found parameters of the earth's surface horizontal deformations and their comparison with permissible parameters characterizing the conditions for laying pipelines, depending on the mining-geological conditions and the degree of their undermining. Based on determined conditions for the safe undermining of the natural gas pipeline, it has been revealed that in its section between the PK212+40 and PK213+80 (140 m) pickets, the estimated parameters of the earth's surface horizontal deformations exceed their permissible values. This can cause deformation and damage to the pipeline. For the safe operation of the pipeline during the period of its undermining, in order to eliminate the hazardous impact of mining the longwall face, additional protection measures must be applied. It is therefore recommended that the gas pipeline between the PK212 and PK214+20 pickets be opened prior to the displacement process (200 m from the stoping face), thus reducing the density of the gas pipeline-soil system. Recommendations for controlling the earth’s surface deformations within the natural gas pipeline route are also proposed, which will ensure premature detection of the negative impact of mining operations.

Primary diamond deposits have been mined on an industrial scale only within the past 150 years, mainly as open pit mines.Although underground mining followed soon after open pits reached technical and/or economic limits, it only gained significant recognition in the past 20 years with the exception of Kimberley Mines.A relatively large number of underground mining methods were tested, implemented, and evolved mainly in South African mines.In the mid-1990s, Alrosa also started the development of the first underground diamond mine in Russia, Internationalnaya.Since then, underground mining has been implemented in several of their mines including Aikhal, Mir, and Udachny.China had also experimented with underground mining at Nhangma 701 Diamond Mine at the end of the nineties, but the largest development of underground diamond mining was experienced in Canada.Today, out of some 50 active diamond mines mining kimberlite or lamproite, approximately 15 are underground and another 15 have underground plans or hold the potential.Ekati Diamond Mine is the first diamond mine to be developed near Lac de Gras in the Northwest Territories of Canada.The Koala North pipe had been developed and mined as an open pit; then later as a mechanised open benching operation to test the underground mining method and to provide access to the lower parts of the Panda and Koala pipes.Both the Panda and Koala pipes were also developed and mined underground once the open pit operations were completed.Koala North, North America's first underground diamond mining operation, was formally opened in 2002.Three principal underground mining methods: open benching, sublevel caving and incline cave mining were implemented at the Ekati mine.Diavik Diamond Mine started open pit production in 2003.By 2005, underground development had commenced with plans to mine the A154 and A418 pipes using backfill methods.As geotechnical knowledge was gained, the mining methods were re-evaluated and the sublevel retreat (SLR) method was chosen for the A154S and A418 pipes, and blasthole stoping (BHS) with cemented rockfill (CRF) was chosen for the A154N pipe.In 2012, the open pits reached their ultimate depths and Diavik became a fully underground operation.The current mine life is approximately 2025.In 2008, De Beers started underground mining on kimberlite sill at Snap Lake.However, the mine closed in 2015 and it is currently on care and maintenance.The focus of this paper is to document experiences with underground mining of kimberlite pipes at the Ekati and Diavik mines.

The implementation of subterranean barriers with mine pre-drainage to reduce coal mine methane emissions from open-cut and underground metallurgical-coal mines

IoT Based information and communication system for enhancing underground mines safety and productivity: Genesis, taxonomy and open issues

Once a month, a group of men in t-shirts, jeans, and baseball caps gather around a long table at the New River Health Clinic. The clinic, a small, one-story yellow clapboard building, is located in the tiny town of Scarbro, nestled in the bituminous hills of southern West Virginia. The members of the Fayette County Black Lung Association greet each other by name while they pour bitter black coffee into small Styrofoam cups. In the early 1970s, coal workers’ pneumoconiosis, or black lung, affected around one-third of long-term underground miners. After new dust regulations took effect, rates of black lung plunged. Today, however, they are once again rising dramatically, ... Amidst the chatter and the coffee are the coughs. Some of the men hack loudly, others more quietly. All of them have advanced black lung, a disease they acquired working in the local mines. Although roughly 22% of underground miners smoke,1 compared with about 18% of U.S. adults in general,2 none of these men do. They gather not just as a support group but also to help one another complete the stacks of paperwork necessary to apply for government-mandated benefits for black lung and navigate the tortuous appeals process. Aside from the group’s leader, a bespectacled septuagenarian named Joe Massie, all the other members are in their 50s or early 60s. That’s relatively young for someone with advanced black lung, and other workers are getting sick even earlier. These miners, who have gotten so sick so fast, are on the forefront of a wave of new black lung cases that are sweeping through Appalachia. Scientists first noticed a troubling trend in 2005, when national surveillance conducted by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) identified regional clusters of rapidly progressing severe black lung cases, especially in Appalachia.3 These concerns were confirmed in followup studies using a mobile medical unit providing outreach to coal mining areas,4,5 with later research showing that West Virginia was hit particularly hard.6 Between 2000 and 2012, the prevalence of the most severe form of black lung rose to levels not seen since the 1970s,7 when modern dust laws were enacted.8 Scarier still, the new generation of black lung patients have disease that in many cases progresses far more rapidly than in previous generations. Today, advanced black lung can be acquired within as little as 7.5–10 years of beginning work, says Edward Petsonk, a pulmonologist at West Virginia University. But not all cases progress so quickly; thus, occupational health researchers fear that what they are seeing now is only the tip of the iceberg.

Lithium-ion batteries are increasingly ubiquitous in portable consumer electronic devices, including laptop computers, cellular phones, and tablet computers. Lithium-ion batteries are also finding widespread deployment in many additional applications and settings, including underground mining environments, where lithium-ion batteries are used as electrochemical power sources for cap lamps, and in tracking and communications equipment.1,2 Battery safety is of paramount importance in any portable electronic device regardless of setting, and is particularly significant in enclosed and isolated areas such as passenger aircraft, or in underground mining environments, where potentially explosive methane/air mixtures can be ignited by a simple spark, which can be caused by shorting and thermal runaway of lithium-ion batteries. This presentation will summarize systematic abuse testing of different lithium-ion batteries used in underground mining safety and communication equipment, including lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2), lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC), and lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) based cathode chemistries. Prismatic and cylindrical 18650 lithium-ion batteries were obtained from commercial vendors and subjected to both wedge and flat plate crush tests, in order to determine the relative safety of each cathode chemistry under two crush speeds and various states-of-charge (SOC). Battery voltage, case temperature and applied load were recorded for each crush test. Video recording of each crush test was also collected. In some cases, hard or soft electrical short circuits were caused by crushing the battery, resulting in thermal runaway, rapid temperature increases, and explosions or fires. Correlations will be drawn between choice of cathode chemistry, state-of-charge, type of crush test, and choice of atmosphere (air or methane/air mixtures), in order to determine the most suitable lithium-ion battery chemistry for underground mining applications. References 1) Dubaniewicz, T. H. Jr.; DuCarme, J. P. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries. 2014, 32, 165. 2) Dubaniewicz, T. H. Jr.; DuCarme, J. P. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications. 2013, 6, 2451-2460.

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">At present, vast numbers of problems are triggered due to growing global energy crisis and rising energy costs. Since, on-road vehicles constitute the majority share of transportation; any energy losses in them will have a direct effect on the overall global energy scenario. Most of the energy lost is dissipated from the exhaust, cooling, and lubrication systems, and, most importantly, in the braking system. About 6% of the total energy produced is lost with the airstream in form of heat energy when brakes are applied. Thus, various technological systems need to be developed to conserve energy by minimize energy losses while application of brakes. Regenerative Braking is one such system or an energy recovery mechanism causing the vehicle to decelerate by converting its kinetic energy into another form (usually electricity), which further can be used either immediately or stored until needed. This study aims at regenerative systems attached at the wheels, although, Regenerative Braking System can be installed at both crankshaft as well as wheels. In the present investigation, a wheel based regenerative braking system was developed and the produced variable current in the dynamo was measured and finally, the produced electricity was stored in a battery via rectifier. The number of Neodymium magnets was varied. Relations between current and RPM of the wheel at different distance between dynamo coil and the magnets were observed and established. Optimum values of number of magnets and magnet-coil distance were found to get the maximum efficiency of the regenerative braking system.</div></div>

Introduction:Major injury incidents in underground metalliferous and mineral mines are rare, but if, e.g., a major fire would occur, it is the emergency medical service (EMS) together with the mining company and rescue service who perform the rescue operation. Therefore it is important to develop safe and efficient rescue operation procedures for all the organizations involved, especially the EMS personnel.Aim:To examine EMS personnel’s perceptions and experiences regarding underground mining incidents.Method:Individual interviews were performed with 13 Swedish EMS personnel. The interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed with qualitative content analysis.Results:The theme “providing the same care in a difficult environment” emerged. Depending on the type of incident, the EMS personnel considered if the injured mining workers could be cared for either outside or in the mine in order to access and care for the injured mining workers as quickly as possible. The EMS personnel mentioned that it was difficult to make the decision if they should enter the mine or not due to the uncertainty of their safety. They also considered that it could be harder to accomplish the same level of care as in other incidents due to the difficult environment. In some instances, they cannot drive their ambulance vehicles into the mine, so they have to prioritize which equipment to bring as well as consider how to transport the patients.Discussion:The results identify some of the difficulties the EMS find challenging. Therefore the results could be used in finding solutions and making the EMS prepared for an effective and timely response for injured in underground mines.

A risk assessment method for hot work based on G1-EWM and unascertained measurement theory was proposed to prevent hot work accidents in underground mines. Firstly, based on the risk influencing factors and classification criteria for underground hot work operations in mines, a single indicator measurement matrix was constructed using unascertained measurement theory; Secondly, a risk assessment index system for mine underground hot work operations was established. The combination weight coefficient of each index was determined using the order relationship analysis method (G1) and entropy weight method (EWM) and coupled with the single index measurement evaluation vector to calculate the multi-index comprehensive evaluation vector of the evaluation object; Finally, the model was validated and examined using engineering examples, and the evaluation level was determined using confidence identification criteria. The results showed that the proposed method, when used to evaluate the risk of hot work operations in tunnels and vertical shafts in metal mines, produces risk levels that are in line with reality III (Moderate Risk) for the vertical shaft and IV (High Risk) for the tunnels. The evaluation model results are consistent with the risk evaluation results the whole process of on-site hot work, which verifies the model feasibility. A unique strategy and method for risk management in hot work operations in underground mines is provided by the combination of weighting and unascertained measure models, which has theoretical and practical value. Future research could focus on refineing this model by exploring the applicability in diverse mining environments and integrating advanced analytical techniques to enhance the predictive accuracy and operational efficiency.

The study describes the environmental, job, and work site characteristics of underground metal and nonmetal mining operations from a human factors viewpoint. Attention is given to the problems associated with the man-machine-environment interface in underground mining and to the accidents and injuries associated with underground mining operations. Differences in methods and equipment used in mining metal and nonmetal materials versus those used in mining coal are noted. Problem areas in the metal and nonmetal mining industry that would benefit from further human factors research and development are outlined.