Pizza ice cream with salami sprinkles: An analysis of the creativity of nominal compounding in multilinguals

Proposed criteria for defining nominal compounds cross-linguistically are not universally accepted. Moreover, in some languages, nominal compounds share properties with phrases and possessive constructions and are not easily identified in all instances (Aikhenvald 2007, Bauer 2006; 2009, Lieber and Štekauer 2009, and Scalise and Vogel 2010). This paper examines the phonological, morphosyntactic, and semantic properties of nominal compounds in Chuxnabán Mixe and argues that defining criteria for compound-hood are best viewed language-specifically. In Chuxnabán Mixe, nominal compounds are best discerned phonologically. In addition, they are distinct morphosyntactically by being treated as a whole for infection and by showing a fixed order with respect to their parts.This work further establishes that nominal compounding is a productive word-formation process in Chuxnabán Mixe. While nominal compounding has been noted in Mesoamerican (Campbell, Kaufman, and Smith-Stark 1986) and other Mixean languages (Romero-Méndez 2008, Ruiz de Bravo Ahuja 1980, Schoenhals and Schoenhals 1982, and Van Haitsma and Van Haitsma 1976), there are no studies examining its formal properties or its productivity, possibly due to the fact that nominal compounding is a lesser-studied topic in polysynthetic languages where most information is encoded in verbs.

This paper provides a distributed-morphological analysis of nominal compounding in Japanese in an effort to pin down the phonological, morphosyntactic mechanism in nominal compounding. The findings reveal that the semantic relation between the N1and N2 has seven variations: Object + Tran.conj.; Instrument + Tran.conj.; Modifier - Tran.conj.; Place - Tran.conj.; Method - Tran.conj.; Cause - Tran.conj.; and Subject –tran. conj..Among the variations, sequential voicing is only subject to [Nobject - N TRAN.conj.] nominal compounds. Moreover, during the process of forming a nominal compound, the second constituents (N2) rendered by aspirate consonants /k/ and /t/ are very likely to receive sequential voicing. When the N2 is conveyed by consonant /c/ and fricative consonant /h/, sequential voicing does not occur. Syntactically, Japanese nominal compounds are all right-headed. The formation process of all nominal compounds is a matter of ‘word derivation’ given the fact that, (i) √Root and the latter added morphemes are not semantically associated and it is after the merger that the semantic interpretation is established, and (ii) the N-N’s category is determined by the added morphemes. In addition, lexicalisation plays an essential role during the nominal compounding process. Crucially, lexicalisation only applies to the[Nobject - N TRAN.conj.] type of compound.

Contrastive Analysis of English Nominal Compounds and their Correspondents in Albanian Language: A Case Study with ESP Law Students

This article deals with the recursive compounding of Old English nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs. It addresses the question of the textual occurrences of the compounds of Old English by means of a corpus analysis based on the Dictionary of Old English Corpus. The data of qualitative analysis have been retrieved from the lexical database of Old English Nerthus. The analysis shows that the nominal, adjectival and adverbial compounds of Old English can be recursive. Nominal compounding allows double recursivity, whereas adjectival and adverbial compounding do not. The conclusion is reached that both the type and token frequencies of recursive compounds are very low; and recursive compounds from the adjectival class are more exocentric as regards categorisation.

Reviewed by: Word Formation in South American Languages ed. by Swintha Danielsen, Katja Hannss, and Fernando Zúñiga Hein van der Voort Word Formation in South American Languages. Edited by Swintha Danielsen, Katja Hannss, and Fernando Zúñiga. Studies in Language Companion Series 163. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2014. Pp. vi + 228. $149.00 (hardcover). This new volume in the companion series to the journal Studies in Language has come out of a workshop on Word Formation in South American Languages organized in June 2011 in Leipzig, Germany, by Femmy Admiraal, Swintha Danielsen and Katja Hannss. The main focus of the call for papers was on compounding, which has not received as much attention in South American language studies as other morphological processes. Only a few of the talks at the workshop made it to the volume in the form of an article. Nevertheless, the majority of the nine articles deal with compounding and related phenomena, two articles deal with reduplication, and the last article focuses on nominalization. As a consequence, the volume is tilted towards compounding and does not cover much of what can be considered canonical derivational morphology. The introduction to the volume is very useful. It presents the topic of the volume and definitions with ample reference to literature, it gives a brief overview of each article in the volume, and it has a useful map locating the languages discussed. The editors define “word formation” in the sense of Bauer (2006), excluding inflection. Strange as it may seem, there are few cross-linguistic studies of word formation as a topic including compounding, reduplication, and derivation. The editors refer to Štekauer and Lieber (2005), noting the sparsity of studies on word formation in “smaller” languages and hoping to contribute to filling this gap for a selection of understudied South American languages. Below, I discuss the chapters one by one. Fernando Zúñiga’s carefully written chapter, “Nominal Compounds in Mapudungun,” is an important contribution to the field of Mapudungun studies. As a polysynthetic agglutinating language, the focus has traditionally been on its rich verb morphology rather than on nominal compounding–what Zúñiga calls “multi-stem nominal expressions.” Zúñiga evaluates and compares the way such nominal expressions have been analyzed in previous studies, showing specific gaps in the analyses. He proposes a more typologically meaningful classification (and subclassification) of nominal compounds that takes into account the systematic correlation between syntactic headedness and the kind of semantic relationship that obtains between head and dependent. For example, when the semantic relationship between head and dependent is intimate, as in the case of a body part, the compound is head-initial. When the relationship is nonintimate, the concomitant parts of the compound have relative phonological independence. When the relationship is unspecified, the compound is head-final. Temis L. Tacconi’s chapter, “Towards a Characterization of Compounding in Maká,” on a Mataco-Mataguayan language of the Paraguayan Chaco region, is the weakest of the volume. The chapter seeks to discuss criteria for regarding lexemes as compounds and whether their behavior is distinctive to the Mataco-Mataguayan family or reflects universal principles. The data on Maká are rich and fascinating, but both the presentation and the analysis are somewhat confusing. The inconsistent use of zero third person morphemes further complicates the analyses. What is said in the text sometimes does not seem to match the examples. Contrasts and criteria are sometimes lacking when the author claims to demonstrate properties or categories. (For instance, how do we see that a certain combination of words is “frozen”? Why is ‘hard’ a noun?) The text contains [End Page 340] unusual terminology such as “derivative morphemes.” This chapter should have been edited more carefully. Paola Cúneo’s chapter “Augmentative Form in Toba (Guaycuruan): Form and Function,” is an interesting contribution to the study of compounds. It discusses derivational and lexical expressions of evaluative notions such as big size, abundance, intensity, excess, and mockery. After a useful discussion of the notion of evaluative morphology in general (see also Cúneo 2015), the author elaborates on the different augmentative expressions in Toba and how these can grammaticalize via compounding. Plant and animal names...

Diskursne oznake, multifunkcionalne jezične jedinice čija je glavna uloga uspostavljanje kohezivnih i koherencijskih veza u diskursu te stvaranje interaktivnih veza među govornicima, igraju iznimno važnu ulogu u pragmatičkoj i diskursnoj kompetenciji govornika. Njihova velika važnost za prirodnu komunikaciju primjerenu kontekstu ukazuje nam na njihov značaj za nastavnike i učenike stranih jezika. Istraživanje opisano u ovomu radu provedeno je radi pružanja uvida u uporabu diskursnih oznaka hrvatskih nastavnika engleskoga kao stranoga jezika u nastavi s učenicima na dvjema razinama ovladanosti jezikom. Korpus govora osam nastavnica analiziran je kvantitativnim i kvalitativnim pristupom pružajući sveobuhvatan uvid u njihovu uporabu diskursnih oznaka, stavove prema ovim jedinicama i udžbenike kojima se koriste u nastavi. Rezultati istraživanja pokazali su da nastavnice rabe širok raspon diskursnih oznaka u nastavi, ali ih u manjemu broju rabe učestalo. Učestale diskursne oznake u njihovu govoru imaju uloge koje se prvenstveno odnose na organizaciju i upravljanje interakcijom u učionici. Analiza pet najčešćih diskursnih oznaka kroz primjere njihove uporabe iz korpusa pruža iznimno detaljan uvid u način na koji ih nastavnice rabe, među ostalim kako bi ostvarile osnovne uloge govora nastavnika. Osvrt na stavove nastavnica i na način obrade diskursnih oznaka u udžbenicima engleskoga jezika upotpunjuju sliku iz koje se može zaključiti da je u hrvatskomu obrazovnomu kontekstu prijeko potrebno sustavno uključiti diskursne oznake u obrazovanje sadašnjih i budućih nastavnika kako bi znali na koji način i u kojoj mjeri svojim učenicima olakšati usvajanje ovih iznimno važnih oblika, što je važna pedagoška implikacija ovoga istraživanja. Budući da kod nas dosad nisu dokumentirana znanstvena istraživanja o uporabi diskursnih oznaka kod hrvatskih nastavnika engleskoga jezika, riječ je o sasvim novim uvidima u ovu temu. Spoznaje proizašle iz ovoga istraživanja mogu pridonijeti razvoju saznanja o govoru nastavnika stranih jezika i postupcima koje nastavnici rabe u nastavi kako bi učenicima olakšali usvajanje jezika. Rezultati istraživanja doprinijet će općenitomu razvoju metodologije poučavanja engleskomu jeziku i oblikovanju smjernica u stručnomu usavršavanju nastavnika u području diskursne kompetencije

This study investigates intersentential and intrasentential code switching among late bilinguals among the Kurdish bilinguals. enormous studies have been conducted on the impact of age of language acquisition on learning second language, however a little research have been conducted concerning to the influence of age of acquisition on how bilingual speakers code switch and the influence of language proficiency on intersentential and intrasentential code switching. The result found out that that age of acquisition plays a crucial role in bilingual code switch. Early bilinguals code switch more frequently than the late bilinguals, intersentential code switching is more common among late bilinguals, whilst intrasentenial code switching is more trend among the early bilinguals. Reference: Ali, Barzan Jaafar (2019) Grammatical aspect of code switching in Farsi-English bilingual speech. University of Sussex, UK. PhD thesis Chan, B. and Hock-Shing. (2015) A diachronic-function approach to explaining grammatical patterns in code-switching: Postmodification in Cantonese English noun phrase. International Journal of Bilingualism. Sage publication. Cheng, L. and Butler, K. (1989) Code-switching: A natural phenomenon vs. language ‘deficiency.’ World English. Di Sciullo, A., Muysken, P., & Singh, R. (1986) Code-mixing and government, Journal of Linguistics. Eppler, Eva. (2010) The Syntax of German-English Code-Switching. Braumüller. Evangelia Adamou and Rachel Shen (2019) There are no language switching costs when code switching is frequent. International Journal of Bilingualism, SAGE Publications. Flege, J. E. (1999) Age of learning and second language speech. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Hans Voggt. 1954. Language Contacts. Word Hartshorne, J.K, Tenenbaum, J. B, Pinker. S (2018) A critical period for second language acquisition: Evidence from 2/3 million English speakers.” Cognition vol. 177: 263-277. Labov, W (1977) Language in the inner city: studies in the black-English vernacular. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Lipski, J. M. (1985) Linguistic Aspects of Spanish-English Language Switching. Arizona State University Center for Latin American Studies. MacSwan, J (1999) minimalist approach to intrasentential codeswitching. New York, Garland Publishing Muysken, P (1995) Grammatical concepts in code-switching. One speaker, two languages: Cross disciplinary perspective on code-switching. Muysken, P (2000) Bilingual speech: A typology of code mixing. Cambridge university press. Myers-Scotton, C.1993. Duelling languages: grammatical structure in code switching. Oxford: clarendon press. Nishimira, M (1986) Intra-sentential code-switching: The case of language assignment. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Pfaff (1979) Constraints on language mixing: Intrasentential code-switching and borrowing in Spanish/English. Poplack, S (1980) Sometimes I’ll Start a Sentence in Spanish Y TERMINO EN ESPAÑOL: Toward a Typology of Code-Switching1’. Linguistics, vol.18. Sankoff, D, and Poplack, S (1981) A Formal Grammar for Code‐switching 1. Linguistics, vol. 14. Sankoff, G (2001) Linguistic outcomes of language contact. Handbook of Sociolinguistics, Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell. Stenson, N (1990) Phrase structure congruence, government and Irish- English code switching. San Diego: Academic Press. Toribio, A.J (2001) On the Emergence of Bilingual Code-Switching Competence. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, vol. 4. Weinreich, U (1953) Languages in Contact. The Hague: Mouton

This study aims to detect the variations and compare the use of Verb Phrase – Double Modals in PakE and MyE. For this study, two recently released corpora – GlowbE-PK and GlowbE-MY were utilized. Twenty Verb phrases with double Modals in PakE and MyE were selected from thousands of concordance lines and a large amount of text. This study utilized mixed method research and also kept in view the Sociolinguistic Variation and World Englishes conventions of research by utilizing corpora.The Frequency of each token (phrase), and then the accumulative and average frequencies of both Englishes were given separately. A comparative analysis of both varieties of English was done. It was an interesting fact to know that MyE displays comparatively more use of VP-Double Modals than PakE. The frequency of VP - Double Modals in MyE is 1.88, which is 0.41 more than the frequency of VP – Double Modals in PakE.The results and discussion indicated a noticeable variation in the use of VP with Double Modals of PakE and MyE from Standard British English (BrE). This research also indicates a linguistic pattern in the different dialects of English. The PakE and MyE have different phases of development, and contact languages with English in both varieties are also different. However, they both display the use of Double Modals.

Recent research on the forms and functions of English in Malaysia has tended to focus on the changing status of English there, particularly since the late 1960s, when Malay, renamed ‘Bahasa Malaysia’, became Malaysia's sole official language and began replacing English as the predominant medium of instruction in the schools. As a result, most analyses of Malaysian English (e.g., Platt and Weber 1980; Wong 1982) have concentrated on a predicted ‘deterioration’ in the English proficiency of younger Malaysians, which has accompanied diminishing needs to use English. In so doing, these studies have often ignored another outcome of this change in the relative status of English and Malay: the many domains of language use in which these two languages are now coming into increasing contact. After a brief review of the history of English in Malaysia, this chapter will examine patterns of lexical borrowing from Malay into English and of code mixing and switching between English and Malay by the current Malaysian elites, who still use and set the standards for English usage in Malaysia. It will be shown that an analysis of the forms and functions of these borrowings, mixes, and switches can enhance our understanding of variation in contemporary Malaysian English. The development of English in Malaysia English during the colonial period The sociolinguistic setting of Malaysian English began to develop during the British colonisation, from the late eighteenth until the mid twentieth centuries, of the Malay Peninsula and of present-day Sabah and Sarawak on the island of Borneo.

In this article the Baltic system of compounding will be presented and its relation to the well attested Proto–Indo–European system of nominal compounding will be sought. The different types have enjoyed different degrees of productivity and the system will be traced back, via East and West Baltic, to Proto–Baltic. It will also be shown that the Lithuanian accentuation of nominal compounds follows certain regular patterns. Finally, the fate of the composition vowel will be discussed and a tendency to delete this vowel in initially stressed compounds will be argued for.

This article questions the status of Adjectives-Noun nominal compounding ([A- N]N) in Akan. Although the A-N compounding is postulated, no single study offers more than three good examples at any time. This is interesting because compounding is very productive in Akan. Again, in all the putative examples, the adjectives bear prefixes that they do not have elsewhere in the grammar, except when they modify plural nouns. I argue that the prefixes nominalize the adjectives which then must occur as the left-hand nominal modifiers in N-N compounds which are predominantly right-headed in Akan. Real adjective constituents of nominal compounds occur on the right. Thus, the morphological make-up and distribution of the constituents of such compounds suggest that they may be better analyzed as N-N compounds with nominalized adjectives as left-hand constituents. However, we may not rule out the existence of A-N compounding in Akan yet, hoping that proponents may succeed, somehow, to adduce real evidence to justify their postulation.

The subject matter of this paper is English nominal compounding — the process of putting nouns together to form a new lexical item. More specifically, this paper addresses the issue that is commonly taken for granted in available accounts of compounding, i.e. the recursiveness of English endocentric nominal compounds. Corpus data indicates a great disparity between the frequencies of noun-noun compounds and multi-noun structures. Our study gives possible reasons behind the low number of occurrences of noun compounds composed of more than two words. Corpus evidence points to the conclusion that English multi-noun compounds are typically constructed with nouns that have been previously lexicalized; such lexicalized compounds commonly function as the base for more complex noun structures; the low frequency of multi-noun compounds emerges as a result of insufficient number of lexicalized noun-noun constructs. The small number of multi-noun compounds has no effect on the overall compound productivity as the process of multi-noun compound creation in the mind of a speaker is identical with that of noun-noun compounding — compounding always consists in putting together a modifier and a head, regardless of the number of nouns within a compound. The structure of any compound is a reflection of the way it is created in the mind of a speaker.

Compounding has received little attention in linguistic typology and, in particular, in studies on linguistic universals. This paper seeks to study compounding as a universal process with special reference to Arabic nominal compounding. It aims to point out whether compounding is a universal process in light of Standard Arabic nominal compounding. It attempts to extrapolate universal tendencies in compounding with respect to the following features of compounding: the identity of compounding, classification of compounds, headedness of the compounds in the world's languages, relationships between the constituents of compounds, and universality of compounding. It proposes lines of empirical research and methodological suggestions towards the study of universals in compounding. The focus of the study is on nominal compounds consisting of two lexemes.

Code-switching in the teaching and learning process is a natural phenomenon, meaning the teacher changes the language during the teaching and learning process, either from Indonesian to English or vice versa. The current study was intended to discover the types and functions of code-switching used by English teachers in classroom interaction. This type of research is qualitative. The subject of the study is an English teacher who teaches English in Grade 11 at a private high school in Kupang, Indonesia. The research data were collected through class observation and recording of the teacher’s utterances during the teaching-learning process. The study uncovers three types of code-switching i.e.: tag switching, inter-sentential, code-switching, and intra-sentential code-switching. Of the three types, intra-sentential code-switching was the most dominantly used by the teacher. The study also found the functions of code-switching used by the teacher in classroom teaching namely repetition, explanation, asking, and translation. The most dominant function of code-switching used by the teacher was translation. It is recommended that English teachers may employ code-switching in learning activities according to the needs and the level of ability of the students. By doing code-switching, the learning process can run smoothly, and the desired goals can be achieved.

Code-switching is one of sociolinguitics phenomenon when a a speaker of bilingual or multilingual switch from a language to another one. The research aims to figure out types of teacher’ code-switching in the teaching and learning process in English class. The study applied a case study of qualitative descriptive research. The participant of the research was an English teacher at a state Islamic school in Sumedang. Observation and interview were used to collect the research data, and the data were analyzed based on code-switching theory proposed by Poplack (1980). The study revealed that (1) teacher applied three types of code switching, namely: intrasentential code switching, inter-sentential code switching, and tag switching; (2) the most frequently used types of code switching used was intrasentential code switching followed by inter sentential code switching and tag switching. Code switching is used by the teacher to reduce either students' misunderstanding of the lesson or their difficulty understanding the English lesson offered by the English teachers in the classroom