Piloting Noninvasive Pathogen Assessment and Perceptions at the Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia)-Domestic Animal-Human Interface in Nepal.

A One Health approach to investigating the health and prevalence of zoonotic pathogens in snow leopards, sympatric wildlife, domestic animals and humans in the South Gobi Desert in Mongolia

Top carnivores play an important role in maintaining energy flow and functioning of the ecosystem, and a clear understanding of their diets and foraging strategies is essential for developing effective conservation strategies. In this paper, we compared diets and prey selection of snow leopards and wolves based on analyses of genotyped scats (snow leopards n = 182, wolves n = 57), collected within 26 sampling grid cells (5×5 km) that were distributed across a vast landscape of ca 5000 km2 in the Central Himalayas, Nepal. Within the grid cells, we sampled prey abundances using the double observer method. We found that interspecific differences in diet composition and prey selection reflected their respective habitat preferences, i.e. snow leopards significantly preferred cliff-dwelling wild ungulates (mainly bharal, 57% of identified material in scat samples), whereas wolves preferred typically plain-dwellers (Tibetan gazelle, kiang and argali, 31%). Livestock was consumed less frequently than their proportional availability by both predators (snow leopard = 27%; wolf = 24%), but significant avoidance was only detected among snow leopards. Among livestock species, snow leopards significantly preferred horses and goats, avoided yaks, and used sheep as available. We identified factors influencing diet composition using Generalized Linear Mixed Models. Wolves showed seasonal differences in the occurrence of small mammals/birds, probably due to the winter hibernation of an important prey, marmots. For snow leopard, occurrence of both wild ungulates and livestock in scats depended on sex and latitude. Wild ungulates occurrence increased while livestock decreased from south to north, probably due to a latitudinal gradient in prey availability. Livestock occurred more frequently in scats from male snow leopards (males: 47%, females: 21%), and wild ungulates more frequently in scats from females (males: 48%, females: 70%). The sexual difference agrees with previous telemetry studies on snow leopards and other large carnivores, and may reflect a high-risk high-gain strategy among males.

The Snow Leopard and the Goat. Hussain, S. 2019. University of Washington Press, Seattle, U.S.A. xix+ 217 pp. US$30.00 (paperback). ISBN 978-0-295-74657-9. Resolving pressures on wildlife requires local support, and that generally comes down to economics. In the case of the mountainous regions of Pakistan, trophy hunting of markhor (Capra falconeri) and ibex (Capra ibex), plus compensation of pastoralists for predation on domestic animals by snow leopards (Panthera uncia), are helping to reduce the loss of wildlife. Over the past 20 years, the author of The Snow Leopard and the Goat has been actively involved in an innovative compensation scheme, whereby about half the funds come from the herdsmen themselves as an insurance premium, and the other half from external sources (including, before 2001 tourist income). He has also studied snow leopards, concluding that numbers in Pakistan have been stable at 300–400 over the past 20 years and form perhaps 5% of the world's population. He recognizes that these numbers are uncertain and controversial. Despite 1400 papers and reports on the snow leopard over the past 40 years, the species is exceptionally hard to study. Nevertheless, those 1400 contributions demonstrate intense interest in conserving the snow leopard. With so many organizations involved, conflicts are rife, especially over competition for funds and how they should be used. As part of the collateral, we may be moving to increasing the resentment of pastoralists to conservation organizations, which wish to impose restrictions on land use. This book offers no strong solutions, but traces the history up to where we are now in an engaging and well-written account, straddling anthropology, biology, and sociology. Why do we care so much about conserving the snow leopard? Respect for the snow leopard in Pakistan traces through its religious past, including the locally extinct Bon religion, which sees sentience in high animals aligned with those of humans. British hunters in the 19th and early 20th centuries wanted to hunt snow leopards (even if they mostly lamented their inability to get a shot in at such an elusive species). We would like future generations to be able to see them. But the Global Snow Leopard Forum in October 2013, which has defined the past 8 years of debate, emphasized both the snow leopard and its habitat. The meeting was designated as “an international effort to save the snow leopard and conserve high-mountain ecosystems.” Large predators may aid conservation by being umbrella species, which require large intact habitats to persist (Caro, 2003). A second justification now comes from the demonstrable role of large predators in limiting herbivore populations; there are many examples where predator removal generated trophic cascades and habitat degradation (Estes et al., 2011). The author notes the above points, but this book is more about people and the snow leopard. The artificially high density of domestic animals grazing in the summer months clearly causes much habitat degradation, probably more than any trophic cascade could. I am most familiar with the scene in Himachal Pradesh, India, where the total number of livestock grazed at high elevations in the summer is increasing as lowland villagers’ wealth increases such that they can afford to send more animals out over the summer months (see also Namgail et al., 2007 and Joshi, 2020). The increase is coupled with technological advances, such as coordination through the use of mobile phones, that enable more efficient use of grazing lands. Given that impacts are high, the ultimate solution must surely require a reduction in pastoralism. In Pakistan, Hussain suggests that as people get richer and less interested in the hard life of pastoralism, this livelihood may already be declining. Ironically, he notes that livestock, which provided 70% of the snow leopard's prey in a study he was involved in, help maintain snow leopard populations. Further, trophy hunting may have increased markhor and ibex populations, but it has also contributed to vilification of the snow leopard for the wild animals it consumes. Nothing is ever straightforward.

The endangered snow leopardPanthera unciaoccurs in rugged, high‐altitude regions of Central Asia. However, information on the status of this felid is limited in many areas. We conducted a pilot study to optimize moecular markers for the analysis of snow leopard scat samples and to examine the feasibility of using noninvasive genetic methods for monitoring this felid. We designed snow leopard‐specific primers for seven microsatellite loci that amplified shorter segments and avoided flanking sequences shared with repetitive elements. By redesigning primers we maximized genotyping success and minimized genotyping errors. In addition, we tested a Y chromosome‐marker for sex identification and designed a panel of mitochondrial DNA primers for examining genetic diversity of snow leopards using scat samples. We collected scats believed to be from snow leopards in three separate geographic regions including north‐western India, central China and southern Mongolia. We observed snow leopard scats in all three sites despite only brief 2‐day surveys in each area. There was a high rate of species misidentification in the field with up to 54% of snow leopard scats misidentified as red fox. The high rate of field misidentification suggests sign surveys incorporating scat likely overestimate snow leopard abundance. The highest ratio of snow leopard scats was observed in Ladakh (India) and South Gobi (Mongolia), where four and five snow leopards were detected, respectively. Our findings describe a species‐specific molecular panel for analysis of snow leopard scats, and highlight the efficacy of noninvasive genetic surveys for monitoring snow leopards. These methods enable large‐scale noninvasive studies that will provide information critical for conservation of snow leopards.

Snow leopards (Panthera uncia) are elusive predators inhabiting high-altitude and mountainous rugged habitats. The current study was conducted in the Yanchiwan National Nature Reserve, Gansu Province, China, to assess the habitat suitability of snow leopards and identify key environmental factors inducing their distribution. Field data collected between 2019 and 2022 through scat sampling and camera trapping techniques provided insights into snow leopard habitat preferences. Spatial distribution and cluster analyses show distinct hotspots of high habitat suitability, mostly concentrated near mountainous landscapes. While altitude remains a critical determinant, with places above 3300 m showing increased habitat suitability, other factors such as soil type, human footprint, forest cover, prey availability, and human disturbance also play important roles. These variables influence ecological dynamics and are required to assess and manage snow leopard habitats. The MaxEnt model has helped us to better grasp these issues, particularly the enormous impact of human activities on habitat suitability. The current study highlights the importance of altitude in determining snow leopard habitat preferences and distribution patterns in the reserve. Furthermore, the study underscores the significance of considering elevation in conservation planning and management strategies for snow leopards, particularly in mountainous regions. By combining complete environmental data with innovative modeling tools, this study not only improves local conservation efforts but also serves as a model for similar wildlife conservation initiatives around the world. By understanding the environmental factors driving snow leopard distribution, conservation efforts can be more efficiently directed to ensure the long-term survival of this endangered species. This study provides valuable insights for evidence-based conservation efforts to safeguard the habitats of snow leopards amidst emerging anthropogenic pressure and environmental fluctuations.

Simple SummaryThe snow leopard is an apex predator, residing in mountain ecosystems in Asia. This study was conducted in the Lapchi Valley of the Nepal Himalayas between November 2021 and March 2023 to investigate the seasonal variations in its prey availability and selectivity. Through camera traps and scat analysis, we identified the blue sheep, Himalayan musk deer, domestic horse, and sheep as key prey species for snow leopards. Snow leopards exhibited dietary diversity, consuming eleven prey species, with blue sheep as their primary wild prey and horses as preferred livestock. Seasonal variation in food preference was noted, where small mammals filled the nutritional requirements during winter’s prey scarcity. The study recommends genetic tools for further diet analysis and stresses the importance of transboundary research and population assessments in shaping effective conservation strategies.Conservation strategies for apex predators, like the snow leopard (Panthera uncia), depend on a robust understanding of their dietary preferences, prey abundance, and adaptability to changing ecological conditions. To address these critical conservation concerns, this study presents a comprehensive evidence on prey availability and preferences for snow leopards in the Lapchi Valley in the Nepal Himalayas from November 2021 to March 2023. Field data were collected through the installation of twenty-six camera traps at 16 strategically chosen locations, resulting in the recording of 1228 events of 19 mammalian species, including domesticated livestock. Simultaneously, the collection of twenty snow leopard scat samples over 3800 m above sea level allowed for a detailed dietary analysis. Photo capture rate index and biomass composition analysis were carried out and seasonal prey availability and consumption were statistically analyzed. A total of 16 potential prey species for the snow leopard were documented during the study period. Himalayan musk deer (Moschus leucogaster) was the most abundant prey species, but infrequent in the diet suggesting that are not the best bet prey for the snow leopards. Snow leopards were found to exhibit a diverse diet, consuming eleven prey species, with blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) being their most consumed wild prey and horses as their preferred livestock. The Pianka’s index of dietary niche overlap between the summer and winter seasons were 0.576, suggesting a pronounced seasonal variation in food preference corroborating with the prey availability. The scarcity of larger preys in winter is compensated by small and meso-mammals in the diet, highlighting the snow leopard’s capacity for dietary plasticity in response to the variation in resource availability. This research suggests for the utilization of genetic tools to further explore snow leopard diet composition. Additionally, understanding transboundary movements and conducting population assessments will be imperative for the formulation of effective conservation strategies.

Retaliatory killing due to livestock depredation is a major threat to snow leopard (Panthera uncia) conservation. To devise management actions that reduce livestock losses and the consequent retaliatory killing, we need to understand the factors that influence the snow leopard's diet and depredation on livestock. Here, we studied snow leopard diet and ecological determinants of livestock depredation in Bhutan by semi‐systematically collecting scat samples and analysing prey hair structure using a micro‐histological method. We identified five prey species. Most of the snow leopard diet consisted of wild ungulates (85.8%), mostly bharal (60.8%). Yak (14.2%) was the only livestock species in the scats. Livestock depredation was higher during summer and differed markedly among four protected areas characterized by various wildlife densities and human activities. These findings will help develop a site‐based management plan to ensure the long‐term persistence of the snow leopard in Bhutan.

Yushu Prefecture in Qinghai Province provides some of the largest known stretches of habitat for the Vulnerable snow leopardPanthera unciain China. People living in these areas are dependent on agropastoralism. Support from local communities is necessary for effective long-term conservation action for snow leopards, but loss of livestock to snow leopards can create financial burdens that induce negative attitudes and encourage retaliatory killing. We assessed factors driving herders' attitudes towards snow leopards and their conservation. We found that herders had higher agreement with positive than with negative statements about snow leopards despite nearly half reporting livestock loss to snow leopards within the last 5 years. No retaliatory killing was reported. Herders with more years of formal education and fewer livestock losses were more likely to have positive attitudes whereas those with lower importance of snow leopards to their religion, fewer livestock losses, and fewer years of education were more likely to have negative attitudes. Understanding the multifaceted mechanisms responsible for positive views towards species is imperative for reaching conservation goals. Our findings ascribe to the importance of increased education and adherence to Tibetan beliefs in promoting conservation tolerance towards snow leopards in Qinghai Province, but also indicate a need for further research into the impact of livestock loss.

Livestock depredation by snow leopards Panthera uncia poses a significant threat to the livelihoods of pastoral communities and engenders negative attitudes towards the species, threatening its survival. We conducted 104 semi-structured interviews within local communities (livestock herders and owners) in the Nyesyang valley of Manang District, in the Annapurna Conservation Area, western Nepal, to assess the status of livestock depredation and community attitudes towards snow leopards. During February 2016–January 2018, respondents reportedly lost 279 livestock to snow leopards (mean loss of 1.3 livestock per household), comprising 3.7% of the total stockholding in 2018. This loss amounts to a monetary loss of USD 319 per annum for each household. Only half of the households who lost livestock to snow leopards in the previous 2 years received compensation from the Conservation Area. Almost an equal proportion of respondents held positive (42%) and negative (41%) attitudes towards snow leopards. An ordered logistic regression analysis revealed that being a woman, being illiterate, owning a high number of large-bodied livestock and relying primarily on agropastoralism were factors associated significantly with negative attitudes towards snow leopards. We recommend focusing conservation education on illiterate community members and engaging more women in conservation programmes, along with a community-based insurance scheme for large-sized livestock to mitigate losses and improve local community attitudes towards snow leopards.

Noninvasive genetic methods and genomics have been able to provide important insights into the distribution, ecology, and evolution of the snow leopard. Scat sampling has yielded quantitative population size estimates using surveys that can be implemented over areas larger than can be done with more traditional methods. Scat has also been used to better understand the diet of this species. It has been found that in many regions snow leopards frequently consume livestock. New molecular markers enable studies to understand the spatial and temporal variation in depredation and to evaluate conservation actions that seek to reduce it. Scats also represent important population samples that have been used to provide insights into the phylogeography and population structure of the snow leopard. Patterns in genetic variation indicate several barriers leading to three primary clusters, while also identifying broader regions where landscape connectivity maintains metapopulations. Next-generation sequencing of 5 snow leopard whole genomes identified 257,780 SNPs that can be genotyped to acquire finer resolution of structure and understand genomic differences. Genome-wide analysis has enabled a closer examination of the two candidate genes, EGLN1 and EPAS1, which likely play an important role in the high-altitude adaptation of snow leopards by modulating the cellular response to hypoxia. There is additional evidence that one target gene, VEGFA, has higher expression in snow leopard lung compared to tiger, potentially leading to improved ventilation. More in-depth studies are needed to generate rigorous population estimates, understand factors that drive livestock depredation, identify the important corridors for connectivity, and elucidate the high-altitude physiological adaptations of this species. The resulting information will contribute to designing effective conservation and management initiatives that ensure long-term stability of snow leopards throughout their range.

Snow leopards (Panthera uncia) are an enigmatic, high-altitude species whose challenging habitat, low population densities and patchy distribution have presented challenges for scientists studying its biology, population structure, and genetics. Molecular scatology brings a new hope for conservation efforts by providing valuable insights about snow leopards, including their distribution, population densities, connectivity, habitat use, and population structure for assigning conservation units. However, traditional amplification of microsatellites from non-invasive sources of DNA are accompanied by significant genotyping errors due to low DNA yield and poor quality. These errors can lead to incorrect inferences in the number of individuals and estimates of genetic diversity. Next generation technologies have revolutionized the depth of information we can get from a species’ genome. Here we used double digest restriction-site associated DNA sequencing (ddRAD-seq), a well-established technique for studying non-model organisms, to develop a reference sequence library for snow leopards using blood samples from five Mongolian individuals. Our final data set reveals 4504 loci with a median size range of 221 bp. We identified 697 SNPs and low nucleotide diversity (0.00032) within these loci. However, the probability that two random individuals will share identical genotypes is about 10−168. We developed probes for DNA capture using this sequence library which can now be used for genotyping individuals from scat samples. Genetic data from ddRAD-seq will be invaluable for conducting population and landscape scale studies that can inform snow leopard conservation strategies.

The snow leopard (Panthera uncia) found in central Asia is classified as vulnerable species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Every year, large number of livestock are killed by snow leopards in Nepal, leading to economic loss to local communities and making human-snow leopard conflict a major threat to snow leopard conservation. We conducted formal and informal stakeholder’s interviews to gather information related to livestock depredation with the aim to map the attack sites by the snow leopard. These sites were further validated by district forest office staffs to assess sources of bias. Attack sites older than 3 years were removed from the survey. We found 109 attack sites and visited all the sites for geo location purpose (GPS points of all unique sites were taken). We maintained at least a 100 m distance between attack locations to ensure that each attack location was unique, which resulted in 86 unique locations. A total of 235 km2 was used to define livestock depredation risk zone during this study. Using Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) modeling, we found that distance to livestock sheds, distance to paths, aspect, and distance to roads were major contributing factors to the snow leopard’s attacks. We identified 13.64 km2 as risk zone for livestock depredation from snow leopards in the study area. Furthermore, snow leopards preferred to attack livestock near livestock shelters, far from human paths and at moderate distance from motor roads. These identified attack zones should be managed both for snow leopard conservation and livestock protection in order to balance human livelihoods while protecting snow leopards and their habitats.

Chapter 14 - Livestock Husbandry and Snow Leopard Conservation

The population of Snow Leopard is declining due to anthropogenic activities and prey scarcity. Snow Leopard’s preferred prey species are Tibetan Argali, Blue Sheep, Himalayan Tahr, Himalayan Marmot, Royle’s Pika, rodents, and livestock such as Yak, Horse, Lulu Cow, Goat and Sheep. Due to livestock depredation by Snow Leopards and other carnivores, local people have a negative attitude towards carnivores’ conservation leading to retaliatory killing. This study identified whether Snow Leopards prey on wildlife or livestock based on micro-histological study of Snow Leopard’s scats. Micro-histological analysis of 39 scat samples of Snow Leopard confirmed that Blue Sheep is the major prey species in Kanchanjunga Conservation Area (KCA). The scat analysis also showed that Snow Leopards prey on livestock mainly to Chauri in KCA, however the number and incidences were few. The herders also confirmed the occasional hunting of their livestock depredation by Snow Leopard in KCA. People have positive attitudes towards Snow Leopard conservation because they are less suffering from Snow Leopard in KCA. If wild prey species are abundant in the wild, livestock depredation might be low.

Conservation geneticists apply genetic theory and techniques to preserve endangered species as dynamic entities, capable of coping with environmental change and thus minimizing their risk of extinction. Snow leopards are an umbrella species of High Asia, and a keystone for maintaining biodiversity within this fragile ecosystem. A clear understanding of patterns of snow leopard genetic diversity is critical for guiding conservation initiatives that will ensure their long-term persistence. Yet, a comprehensive analysis of snow leopard genetic variation is lacking. The number of published snow leopard genetic studies is far fewer than for other imperiled big cats. Here, I review the limited genetic work to date on snow leopards and the significant knowledge gaps to be filled. An emphasis must be placed on describing and understanding population genetic dynamics within and among meta-populations to provide information about the interactions between landscapes and the micro-evolutionary processes of gene flow and genetic drift. These results can be used to evaluate the levels and dynamics of genetic and demographic connectivity. A lack of connectivity, particularly in the low density, small populations that typify snow leopards, can lead to multiple demographic and genetic consequences, including inbreeding depression, loss of adaptive potential, and heightened susceptibility to demographic and environmental stochasticity. New efforts in conservation research on snow leopards should focus on this line of inquiry, and the opportunities and challenges for that are outlined and discussed to encourage the required, and considerable, transboundary partnerships and collaborations needed to be successful.