Pig Management and Biosecurity Measures against African Swine-Fever (ASF) Disease: After the outbreak in Lagos State

The study analyzed socio-economic determinants of access and use of veterinary services among poultry farmers in Abia State Nigeria. The study specifically investigated the level of access of veterinary services by poultry farmers, ascertained the level of use of veterinary service by poultry farmers. Multi stage and purposive sampling techniques were applied in choosing 120 poultry farmers for the study. The study made use of structured questionnaire. Data obtained were analyzed using descriptive statistics and Tobit regression analysis. Result of Tobit regression revealed that socio-economic variables of the respondents were determinants of access and use of veterinary services. The coefficients of age (0.0259**), farming experience (0.0314***) farm size (0.2511***) and household size (0.3023) significantly influenced use and access of veterinary services by poultry farmers. The Study concludes that poultry farmers in Abia State are getting enough veterinary services The study recommends that the socio-economic determinants of the poultry farmers should be considered by the relevant authorities involved in dispensation of veterinary services in study area.

Examine US consumer pet-related and veterinary service expenditures and factors influencing US households' use of veterinary services. Descriptive analysis on pet-related and veterinary service expenditures and regression analysis on pet owners' use of veterinary services, using data from the US Bureau of Labor Statistics Consumer Expenditure from 2006 to 2018, with the sample size of 257,836 households, of which 73,593 had pet expenses. From 1980 to 2018, the proportion of households with pet-related and veterinary service expenditures increased. Since 2010, the percentage of pet-owning households using veterinary services has increased substantially. Household characteristics were examined and significantly affected the probability of both pet and veterinary expenditures. Non-White and Hispanic groups had increased pet ownership, but the likelihood of veterinary service use has not surpassed White and non-Hispanic pet owners. Understanding the effects of household sociodemographics, particularly race and ethnicity, on using veterinary services provides insights for optimizing strategic planning for the pet industry and veterinarians. Reviewing the implications helps adjust and fine-tune strategies and influence the sustainability of the veterinary service sector by attracting different racial and ethnic groups. Future research might focus on other social and cultural factors influencing the utilization of veterinary care. The veterinary service sector can then effectively address pet care disparities, bridge existing gaps and improve economic viability.

SUMMARY The findings of pet population studies conducted in the United States were examined for factors relating to dog and cat ownership and to the use of veterinary medical services. Single family dwelling units, children's age of 6 to 19 years, and occupation of the head of a household were found to be directly related to dog and cat ownership. In the areas studied between 1954 and 1965, from 6.4 to 48.9% of dog owners had never used veterinary services, and from 13.2 to 73.0% of cat owners had never used veterinary services. The use of veterinary services varied in different occupation groups. Although still increasing, the rate of increase in new AKC registrations for the years 1966 to 1968 was much lower than for the previous 3 years. The services utilized by dog owners were (in decreasing order) general medicine, boarding and grooming, vaccination, and surgery. “Rules of thumb” based on dog to man ratios for estimating dog population size may not be valid because of differences in the density of pet animals in different states and in different locales within the same metropolitan area. The desirability of using ratios based on single family dwelling units was demonstrated. The overall ratios, 1 dog per 2.5 single family dwelling units and 1 cat per 3.2 single family dwelling units were obtained in Alameda County, California.

Exploring pig farmers' decision-making concerning biosecurity measures against African Swine Fever.

BackgroundSince its first introduction into the German wild boar population in 2020, African swine fever (ASF) has been spreading slowly from the eastern border westwards and has been introduced into eight domestic pig farms thus far. The European Food Safety Authority has named deficits in farm biosecurity and increased human activity as major risk factors for the introduction of the ASF virus into pig farms. Studies have shown that pig farms in Germany generally have a high level of biosecurity. However, veterinary practitioners and policy-makers have expressed concerns that not all pig farmers are appropriately prepared to deal with the threat of ASF. This study aimed to evaluate the level of biosecurity on pig farms in Lower Saxony and explore the reasons for deficits in the implementation of biosecurity measures. For this purpose, pig farmers were interviewed in open structured face-to-face interviews about their perception of ASF and biosecurity, and the implemented measures on their farms were assessed with a checklist. In the data analysis, the farmers’ answers and the results of the biosecurity check were compared to gain further insights into the factors influencing the implementation of biosecurity measures on the farms.ResultsThe biosecurity check showed that on most farms, a high level of biosecurity had been implemented. Nevertheless, deficits were found concerning the fences and the delimitation of clean and dirty areas on farm grounds and in the anteroom. Overall, the farmers were well informed about ASF and had a realistic perception of their own biosecurity. They considered the farm layout, financial means and practicality of hygiene measures to be the main barriers to implementing biosecurity measures against ASF. However, the results also suggested that farmers’ attitudes and legal regulations were major influencing factors.ConclusionThe results indicated a high level of biosecurity against ASF on most pig farms and a realistic perception of their own biosecurity by the farmers. Current knowledge transfer and information should focus on building upon the farmers’ own motivation and expertise and supporting them to put existing knowledge into practice.

Outbreaks of African Swine Fever (ASF) have severe economic implications for Nigeria and result in significant loss of livelihoods. The non-availability of vaccines makes biosecurity the reliable key to reducing ASF outbreaks. This study evaluated preparedness for ASF outbreaks at the farm level among 247 pig farmers randomly selected from Abia, Akwa-Ibom, Edo, Kwara, and Oyo states. We categorized each pig farmer's ASF preparedness rating (ASF – PR) as “poor”, “moderate”, and “satisfactory” based on their score on an 11-item scale. Finally, a multivariable logistic regression analysis was conducted to assess the association between the socio-demographic variables and farm-level ASF preparedness. The awareness of ASF among pig farmers was very high (87.9%, n = 217). Most farmers knew the clinical signs of the disease, the modes of transmission of ASF, and correctly identified the risk factors. They also considered the need for thorough cleaning and disinfection of piggeries (87.1%, n = 189), tightened biosecurity (85.7%, n = 186), culling all ASF-affected pigs (77.9%, n = 169) as well as the ban on the transport of pigs and their products (49.8%, n = 108) as very important in ASF control. Conversely, 27.6%, (n = 60) of the farmers thought ASF could affect humans, 12% (n = 27) of them openly discarded the carcasses of dead pigs, and there was a high antibiotic usage. Most of the pig farmers used antibiotics as prophylaxis (63.6%, n = 157), chemotherapeutics (66.4%, n = 164), growth promoters (15.4%, n = 38), and wrongly so, 13% (n = 32) of them thought that antibiotics could be used to prevent and treat ASF. At the farm level, two-thirds (68.8%, n = 170) of the farmers had strict movement restrictions, and 48.6% (n = 120) routinely quarantine new pigs before introduction into their herd. Across the five states, 36% (n = 89) of the farmers had witnessed sudden death with signs consistent with ASF amongst their pigs and only 10.1% (n = 27) had confirmatory ASF diagnosis. The mean score for the farm-level ASF-PR was 6.95 ± 2.7. Approximately one-quarter of the 247 pig farmers had satisfactory ASF – PR that might help to prevent the incursion of ASF into their farms. Most farmers had moderate ASF - PR (59.5%, n = 147) whereas 17% (n = 42) had very poor ASF-PR and were most prone to an ASF outbreak. Of the sociodemographic variables, only age was significantly associated with farm-level ASF preparedness as older pig farmers especially those aged between 50 and 59 years (OR: 4.83; 95% CI: 1.10, 21.22; p = 0.037) were more likely to have satisfactory ASF - PR than the others. Our findings showed pig farmers were not adequately prepared and the next ASF outbreak could pose more significant threat to pig populations across Nigeria. Government should urgently establish minimum biosecurity measures and improve its ASF surveillance mechanisms for commercial and backyard pig production.

This study examined the access and use of veterinary services by small scale livestock farmers in the western agricultural zone of Nasarawa state. Two Local government areas (Karu and Keffi LGAs) were purposively selected from the zone for the study based on their popularity in small scale livestock production. Ten villages were randomly selected from each of the two selected LGAs to give a total of 20 villages. Six (6) livestock farmers were randomly selected from each of the 20 selected villages giving a total of 120 respondents. Data were collected through a structured interview schedule. Data were analyzed using both descriptive statistics and a multiple regression model using SPSS software. The results show that the majority (75.2%) of the respondents were male. Their mean age was 35years which implies that the livestock farmers were mostly young people. Their average year of farming experience was 10 years. Half (50%) of them had tertiary education, indicating the enhanced capacity to access and use veterinary services. The major veterinary services adopted by the respondents were treatment of sick animals (93.3%), vaccination (87.2%), castration (65.0%) and Sanitary/Fumigation practices (41%) among others. The regression analysis showed that four variables had a significant effect (1%) on the level of use of veterinary services by the respondents. These were gender (p ≤ 0.417), level of education (p ≤ 0.603), number of extension visits (p ≤ 0.607) and membership of social organisations (p ≤ 0.670). Lack of money to acquire vaccines and drugs (X = 2.3), high cost of veterinary services (X =2.3) and far distance to veterinary centres (X =2.0) were the major constraints to use of veterinary services. It was recommended that extension agents should encourage the farmers to join cooperative groups to enhance easy access to credit to procure veterinary inputs.

A semi-quantitative risk assessment was developed to classify pig farms in terms of the probability of introduction of African swine fever virus (ASFV). Following on-farm data collection via a specific checklist, we applied a modified failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA) to calculate the risk priority codes (RPC's), indicating increasing risk levels ranging from 1 to 5. The importance of biosecurity measures was attributed by experts. To consider geographic risk factors, we classified pig farms based on local density of farmed pigs, and on the estimated wild boar population density. The combination of RPC's with geographical risk factors resulted into a final ranking of pig farms in terms of the risk of ASFV introduction. Furthermore, the estimation of frequency and levels of non-compliance with biosecurity measures was used to identify weak points in risk prevention at farm level. The outcome of the risk assessment was affected by choices in assigning non-compliance scores and importance to specific components of biosecurity. The method was applied in 60 commercial farms in major pig production areas in Italy. Furthermore, we applied a reduced version of our checklist in 12 non-commercial/small commercial (≤20 pigs) farms in the northern Apennines. In commercial farms, highest RPC's were obtained for biosecurity measures associated with personnel practices and farm buildings/planimetry. Intervention should be addressed to training of personnel on biosecurity and ASF, to avoid contacts with other pig herds, and to improve practices in the entrance into the farm. Sharing trucks with other farms, and loading/unloading of pigs were other weak points. Fencing was classified as insufficient in 70% of the commercial farms. Among these farms, breeding units were characterised by the lowest risk of ASFV introduction (although differences among median ranks were not statistically significant: P-value = 0.07; Kruskal–Wallis test), and increasing herd size was not significantly correlated with a higher risk (Kendall's τ = −0.13; P-value = 0.14). Density of farmed pig was greatest in the main pig production area in northern Italy. Conversely, exposure to wild boars was greatest for non-commercial/small commercial farms on the Apennines, which were also characterised by non-compliance with critical biosecurity measures.

The African swine fever virus (ASFV) has been circulating in and ravaging the swine industry in Cameroon for decades. Annual ASFV epidemics occur in Cameroon from April to August. With the absence of vaccines and antiviral drugs against this virus, biosecurity has been the only effective control tool available. When properly applied, biosecurity measures allow control of the spread of ASFV and the eventual eradication of this virus. Many outbreak investigations by PCR were effected in Cameroon, with ASFV prevalences ranging from 15.23% to 42.80%. Considering that pre-outbreak studies are not available for Cameroon, the present study aimed at assessing the status of the animals before an outbreak. A two-stage cluster sampling study was conducted from January to March 2020. In this study, the primary unit was the farm and the secondary unit was the individual animals. In all, 97 farms were visited and 277 samples were collected. Pre-outbreak ASFV prevalence, as assessed by PCR, was 9.75%. In parallel, data were collected using a survey of farm characteristics, awareness and attitude of the farmers toward ASF. The survey results showed that 34.1% of the farms were backyard cemented piggeries with the majority having less than 10 pigs (54.1%). The majority of farmers (90.6%) had heard of and knew about the disease caused by ASF. Though 69.4% of the farmers were uninformed on the clinical signs of ASF, 73.6% of them did treat sick pigs presenting similar clinical signs to ASF (with no risk of mortality) with antibiotics, while 79.4% did not treat but sold the pigs presenting clinical signs similar to ASF with an increased risk of mortality. Sixty-three percent of the farmers had reported a case of ASF in the past and believed that reporting was useful and had no negative consequences on other farmers or third parties. We established that poor implementation of biosecurity measures in addition to poor training are contributing factors to the enzootic nature of ASFV in Cameroon and, thus, the spread of ASFV. Hence, pig farmers in Cameroon must be properly trained in ASFV awareness and the impact thereof on pig production. Furthermore, training will also facilitate the successful implementation of biosecurity measures to contain ASFV outbreaks.

Background: In recent years, the pig industry in Tanzania has faced frequent occurrence of outbreaks of African swine fever (ASF). However, there is inadequate information on the pig value chain operation in relation to occurrence of ASF. This study aimed at mapping pig value chain and assess its contribution to the occurrence and spread of ASF in Tanzania.
 Methods: A cross sectional study was carried out in Songwe, Momba, Songea and Mbinga districts of Tanzania. Study districts were purposively selected based on the density of pig population, differences in production systems and history of ASF outbreaks. A total number of 484 pig producers and 28 traders were involved in the study. Random sampling was used to select pig producers. Pig traders were selected using snowball technique. Structured questionnaires were used to collect data on pig management and production practices, veterinary services, pig marketing practices and biosecurity measures using Open Data Kit (ODK) software. Semi structured interviews were conducted with key informants on perceived risk practices that are related to ASF outbreaks, challenges and recommendations on ASF prevention and control measures. Observation method was used to assess structure, facilities and practices within the pig production chain. 
 Results: The main actors in the pig production chain were pig producers, assemblers, wholesalers and retailers. Unknown stock source (30%), poor husbandry practice such as free ranging (5%), poor management of waste products (73%) and poor handling of feed (73%) were risk practices in the production node. Transportation nodes operated under high risk due to frequent movements and pick-ups of ≥ 30 pigs per trip.
 Conclusion: The results demonstrated that different actors operate in the pig production, distribution and marketing chain. Each node operated under low biosecurity measures, and poor infrastructures that are likely to contribute to occurrence of ASF. There is need to improve good husbandry practices, marketing and infrastructures to increase production while ensuring pork safety.

Background and Aim:Several factors contribute to the unusual incidence of antibiotic resistance, which is now a primary public health concern. However, failure in managing preventive and therapeutic antibiotic use on farms is one of the most crucial factors. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the biosecurity of farms, farmers’ competence, and practices related to antibiotics and their resistance in poultry and pig rearing in Togo.Materials and Methods:Through a cross-sectional survey, 121 commercial poultry farmers and 97 commercial pig farmers were questioned to evaluate the biosecurity of farms and farmers’ competence and practices related to antibiotics and antibiotic resistance. Descriptive analyses, including the evaluation of proportions, were carried out. In addition, results from qualitative factors were evaluated in a defined grid and totaled up to assess cleanliness measures, awareness, and behavior regarding antibiotics and their resistance.Results:The results demonstrated that most farmers working on poultry farms had a university education, while most working on pig farms had secondary education. Most poultry (69%) and pig (44%) farms were of small sizes (<1000 animals in poultry and <10 animals in pig farming). The footbaths were used in just 51% of poultry farms and 4% of pig farms, respectively, with 37% and 82% of poultry and pig farms having inadequate levels of hygiene. In poultry farms, respiratory issues and periodic decline in egg-laying were the main problems. Simultaneously, skin disorders (scabies) and plagues (African swine fever) were the primary health constraints in pig farming. Tetracycline is the most commonly used antibiotic by farmers. However, in poultry and pig farms, 21% and 67% of farmers were unaware of antibiotics. In addition, 39% and 57% were unaware of antibiotic resistance. Poultry and pig farmers’ competence were substantially linked to their education level. Poultry farmers demonstrated better practices, including procuring antibiotics based on veterinary prescriptions (63%) and they knew where antibiotics should be bought (90%). Nevertheless, 43% of farmers asserted unpleasant activities – no application for laboratory testing (93%) and use of antibiotics for prevention (82%). In pig farming, most farmers (69%) reported inadequate incidents of the use of antibiotics.Conclusion:This study identified a crucial non-compliance with biosecurity measures and good practices toward antibiotic use on many farms. Therefore, training of farmers is mandatory for safe livestock products.

An expert knowledge elicitation was conducted to address three tasks identified by EFSA's Animal Health and Welfare (AHAW) Panel: categorize outdoor farm types of pigs in EU MS according to the risk of African Swine Fever (ASF) introduction into these farms and the risk of ASF spread from these farms, rank biosecurity measures according to their potential to lower the risk of ASF introduction into these farms and the risk of ASF spread from these farms in ASF-affected countries, and propose improvements of biosecurity for outdoor pig farming categories and the control measures that should flank these in ASF-affected countries. The elicitation was conducted with four scientists with expertise in ASF epidemiology, biosecurity and outdoor farming practices and structures, including organic and backyard farming of pigs outdoors. The first task was addressed by eliciting estimates for the risk of new ASF outbreaks in the areas of interest in the coming year for two types of outdoor pig farms, specified by EFSA. As a worst-case scenario for assessment, the EKE considered areas of the EU where ASF is present in wild boar and in domestic pigs in indoor farms and, if outdoor farms were to be permitted in such areas, in domestic pigs in outdoor farms. The second task was addressed by developing a preliminary list of biosecurity measures, prioritising 7 measures in terms of expected effectiveness in reducing risk for each farm type, and then eliciting estimates of the effectiveness, feasibility and sustainability of each of the prioritised measures, considered separately. The third task was addressed by brainstorming of potential control measures to be considered in conjunction with improved biosecurity. The results are intended for consideration by the EFSA AHAW Panel when developing a Scientific Opinion on ASF and outdoor pig farming.

African swine fever (ASF) has become one of the most economically important diseases affecting swine and has a significant negative impact on the global pork production sector. In Europe, the main reservoir of the disease is the wild boar population, which poses a risk of transmitting the disease to pig farms. To date, no safe and effective vaccine is available on the market. Therefore, biosecurity measures and early recognition of the disease play a key role in preventing and combating ASF. In recent years, numerous insights into the nature of the virus have emerged; however, several knowledge gaps still need to be addressed. One of these gaps is an accurate understanding of all possible pathways through which the virus can reach a pig farm. Interrupting these pathways would significantly reduce the risk of disease outbreaks. Despite a general understanding of disease transmission, ASF can still affect farms with well-established high biosecurity measures. This article highlights the potential for mechanical transmission of ASF by flying hematophagous insects, considering several factors, including current knowledge of the putative role of insects in ASF transmission, insects’ abilities to transmit the virus, ASFV properties, the uncertainties regarding the effectiveness of indirect transmission, and the seasonality of disease outbreaks on domestic pig farms.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in humans has been linked to non-judicious antimicrobial use (AMU) in food animals. To develop antimicrobial stewardship plans (AMSPs) for pig farmers, there is the need to understand the current status of AMU and the driving factors in the industry. Data on AMU, farmers’ perceptions of associated drivers, and biosecurity were collected through a mixed-method study design with focus group discussions (FGDs) and questionnaire-based interviews. Antimicrobials (AMs) were mainly used for therapeutic and prophylactic purposes. Common AMs used were tetracycline (78.8%), gentamycin (53.8%), and tylosin (52.5%). Perceived drivers of AMU were linked to economic benefits, farmers’ previous experiences, sick animals, expensive veterinary services, easy accessibility to over-the-counter drugs, poor farm practices, and poor disease prevention strategies. AMU was poor (average 40.2%), while knowledge on AMs and implications for animal and human health was considered averagely satisfactory (56.4%). The biosecurity level was also satisfactory (53.0%) and significantly associated with having a written farm health plan (p = 0.035). Good AMU was found to be strongly associated with farmers’ use of veterinary services (p = 0.001). Diverse factors drive antimicrobial use among pig farmers in Ogun State, and these could be addressed by providing continuing education on antimicrobial stewardship and best farm practices.

The analysis of the situation on management of main epizootic threats significant for pig industry in the Russian Federation was carried out. The features and effectiveness of various biosecurity measures used in pig holdings and possible ways for their improvement were examined. Options for improvement of biosecurity measures in Russian pig holdings and development of the systems in the Russian Federation having favorable effect on the population protection were discussed focusing on four target aspects related to infection introduction and spread routes: isolation of the population from external sources of threats (elimination of probable environmental impact scenarios); isolation of the population from internal sources of threats (elimination of probable impact scenarios during production process); isolation of the pig population or pig farming system from the human factor impact (elimination of possible scenarios of human factor impact on the population); isolation of the population from the conditions under which the threat potential is manifested (changing of conditions). The analysis results were presented graphically in the form of a schematic diagram“Sources of threats to biosecurity systems and measures aimed at these sources for the protected population creation in pig industry”. Based on the discussion results, automation and digitalization of all processes in pig industry, generation of genetically modified pigs not susceptible to the most significant pathogens such as African swine fever, classical swine fever, porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome viruses and their use for production purposes, further research and implementation of integrated technological solutions for feed sanitation have been concluded to be the evolutionarily significant ways for effective pig farming intensification in the Russian Federation.