Phytochemical and Antibacterial Activity of Aloe vera, Camellia sinensis and Momordica charantia

ABSTRACTFicus deltoidea Jack (Moraceae) is a well-known medicinal plant used in customary medication among the Malay people to reduce and mend sicknesses such as ulcers, psoriasis, cytotoxicity, cardioprotective, inflammation, jaundice, vitiligo, hemorrhage, diabetes, convulsion, hepatitis, dysentery injuries, wounds, and stiffness. Ficus deltoidea contains a wide variety of bioactive compounds from different phytochemical groups such as alkaloids, phenols, flavonoids, saponins, sterols, terpenes, carbohydrates, and proteins. The genus Ficus has several hundreds of species, which shows excellent therapeutic effects and a wide variety of helpful properties for human welfare. Searching information was collected by using electronic databases including Web of Science, Science Direct, Springer, SciFinder, PubMed, Scopus, Medline, Embase, and Google Scholar. This review is, therefore, an effort to give a detailed survey of the literature on its pharmacognosy, phytochemistry, phytochemical, and pharmacological properties of Ficus and its important species. This summary could be beneficial for future research aiming to exploit the therapeutic potential of Ficus and its useful medicinal species.

The increasing failure of chemotherapeutics and antibiotic resistance exhibited by pathogenic microbial infectious agents has lead to the screening of several medicinal plants for their potential antimicrobial activity. The medicinal properties shown by different medicinal plants are due to the phytochemicals present in the plant. These phytochemicals are the most vital sources for the treatment of destructive diseases. Different phytochemicals have an extensive range of activities, which helps to enhance the immune system and give resistance against long term disease to protect the body from harmful pathogens. To determine the antibacterial activity of <i>Citrus sinensis</i> and <i>Solanum lycopersicum</i> on wound isolated from Hospitals in Kaduna Metropolis Kaduna Nigeria was the main purpose of this study. Ethanolic and aqueous extracts of powdered <i>C. sinensis</i> peel and fresh fruit of <i>S. lycopersicum</i> were used for the qualitative measurement of various phytochemicals present in these plants. The phytochemical screening of the extracts yielded positive results for carbohydrates, glycosides, cardiac glycosides, saponins, triterpene, tannins, flavonoids and alkaloids. Wound swab samples of patients from five (5) selected hospitals within Kaduna metropolis yielded <i>Bacillus cereus, Myroides Species</i> and <i>Staphylococcus lentus</i>. The <i>Citrus sinensis</i> ethanolic and aqueous extracts as well as the <i>Solanum lycopersicum</i> ethanolic and aqueous extracts demonstrated a broad spectrum antibacterial activity against the three pathogenic bacteria of wound origin. The result of the tests indicate that orange peel ethanolic extract, tomato aqueous extract and tomato ethanolic extract showed the highest inhibition against <i>Bacillus cereus</i> 22mm, 20mm and 15mm respectively while highest inhibition of orange peel aqueous extract 19.5mm was recorded for <i>Myroides spp</i>. Lowest inhibition of tomato aqueous extract and tomato ethanolic extract were recorded for <i>Staphylococcus lentus</i> 15.2mm and 13.17mm respectively. Orange peel ethanolic extract and orange peel aqueous extract did not inhibit the growth of <i>Bacillus cereus</i> and <i>Staphylococcus lentus</i> respectively. Extracts which exhibited high activities against one or several pathogenic wound isolates were further assayed for minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). The present study concludes that orange peel ethanolic, tomato aqueous and tomato ethanolic extracts showed highest antibacterial activity against the organism <i>Bacillus cereus</i> while orange peel aqueous showed highest antibacterial activity against <i>Myroide spp</i>. and there was a significant difference in the level of inhibition among the organisms isolated.

Siphonochilus aethiopicus (Schweinf.) B.L. Burtt (Zingiberaceae), commonly known as wild ginger, is one of the most important and threatened medicinal plants in South Africa. A study of the pharmacological properties of S. aethiopicus and the effect of seasonal senescence on antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties was undertaken. Water, ethanol and ethyl acetate extracts were prepared from the leaves, rhizomes and roots of S. aethiopicus plants. The extracts were tested in a variety of pharmacological assays. Results for the general screening showed antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activity. Some cytotoxicity was observed with the aqueous extracts of the rhizome. However, no significant activity against the herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2, the influenza A virus, and in the anthelmintic, antischistosomal and biochemical induction assays were observed. In the microdilution antibacterial assay, no inhibitory activity against the test bacteria was detected with the aqueous extracts. The ethanol and ethyl acetate extracts tested showed greater antibacterial activity at minimal inhibitory concentrations ranging from 0.78 to 3.13 mg ml − 1 against the Gram-positive bacteria ( Bacillus subtilis , Staphylococcus aureus ) than the Gram-negative bacteria ( Escherichia coli , Klebsiella pneumoniae ). Little difference was observed between the ethanol and ethyl acetate extracts, or between the different plant parts. Ethanol extracts were prepared from the different plant parts before and after seasonal senescence, and tested for antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activity. There appeared to be a loss of antibacterial activity in the leaves with senescence, concomitant with an increase of activity in the alpha-roots. In the cyclooxygenase-1 assay, the aqueous extracts showed no significant prostaglandin synthesis inhibition. For the ethanol and ethyl acetate extracts, the leaves showed the highest levels of activity at a concentration of 250 ng ml −1 per test solution, in both the cyclooxygenase-1 and −2 assays. Some differences in the levels of anti-inflammatory activity in the roots following senescence were also observed. There was a slight loss of activity as a result of drying the rhizome material prior to extraction. This suggests that fresh rhizome material may be more effective for medicinal use, although it should be noted that the aqueous rhizome extracts displayed moderately high levels of cytotoxicity, and may require further investigation.

Summary Evaluation of antibacterial activity of four medicinal plants used in the treatment of diarrheal diseases. To determine the antibacterial activity of total aqueous and ethanolic extracts of different plants, agar diffusion (Muller-Hinton) and broth macrodilution (Muller-Hinton) methods( DMHB) were used tested on Staphylococcus  aureus ATCC 25923 and Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and two clinical strains Escherichia coli 18170 and Staphylococcus aureus 1315. The diameters of inhibition and minimum inhibitory concentrations were determined. The studies carried out by the method of agar diffusion method and the double dilution revealed that extracts of Terminalia mantaly H. Perrier (Combretaceae) has an inhibitory activity on all tested strains. The inhibitory diameters vary between 7.66 mm and 35mm. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of the extracts ranged from 0.78 mg /mL and 2.5 mg /mL. The ethanolic extracts inhibit the growth of bacteria at lower concentrations than the aqueous extracts. Terminalia mantaly has a stronger antibacterial activity and thus can be useful in the search for new molecules to fight against bacterial resistance.  Keywords: antibacterial activity, inhibition diameters, minimum inhibitory concentration, Terminalia mantaly

Introduction: Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus are bacterial species that have earned the reputation of “super bugs” due to their resistance to multiple classes of antimicrobial agents. The search for alternative therapies continues in the face of life-threatening infections caused by these organisms. Gmelina arborea, a deciduous tree native to the tropical regions of Asia, has been traditionally used in folk medicine for its potential therapeutic properties. Objectives: This study aimed to investigate the antibacterial activity of the ethanolic and aqueous extracts of Gmelina arborea leaves on P. aeruginosa and S. aureus isolates. The study also compared the antibacterial activity of the Gmelina arborea leaf extracts with those of commonly used antibiotics, which served as control. Methods: Clinical isolates were obtained from clinical samples. Fresh Gmelina arborea leaves were obtained and authenticated by a Botanist. Aqueous and ethanolic extracts were obtained using the Soxhlet extractor. Isolates were subjected to in vitro extract antibacterial testing in replicates using agar well diffusion method. One-way ANOVA was used to analyze for zones of inhibition. Results: Ethanolic leaf extract of Gmelina arborea at concentrations of 100mg/mL, 50mg/mL, 25mg/mL and 12.5mg/mL exhibited significant antibacterial activity with zone of inhibition diameters ranging from 30.2±0.2-17.1±0.14mm for P. aeruginosa and 28.5±0.15-16.0±0.17mm for S. aureus isolates. The MICs of ethanolic extracts varied between 3.125-6.25mg/mL and 6.25-12.5mg/mL while the MBCs were 6.25mg/mL and 12.5mg/mL for P. aeruginosa and S. aureus respectively. These results compared favourably with those of the standard antibiotic discs tested. In contrast, isolates were resistant to the aqueous extract. Conclusion: Ethanolic leaf extract of Gmelina arborea had antibacterial activity on P. aeruginosa and S. aureus. It could be a potential source of natural antimicrobial agents for the development of novel therapeutic strategies against P. aeruginosa and S. aureus infections.

This study evaluates the antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of the crude extract of an aerial part of Satureja punctata (Benth.) Briq. The dried aerial part of S. punctata (Benth.) Briq was extracted separately using aqueous, ethanol and n-hexane. The antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa was assessed using disc diffusion method, and the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and bactericidal concentration (MBC) of the extracts were determined by the agar dilution method. The radical scavenging activity of the extracts was evaluated by DPPH assay. The result indicated that the aqueous and ethanol extracts exhibited significant antibacterial activities on the test microorganisms. The antibacterial activity of 600 mg/ml aqueous extract as measured by inhibition zones against S. aureus was 10.33±0.25 mm, E. coli 9.83±0.19 mm and P. aeruginosa 8.53±0.12 mm. The 600 mg/ml ethanol extract inhibited through zone of inhibitions S. aureus (10.33±0.41 mm), E. coli (9.37±0.18 mm) and P. aeruginosa (10.17±0.46 mm). Furthermore, the MIC values for both aqueous and ethanol extracts were from 75 to 100 mg/ml; whereas the MBC values for same extracts were from 100 to 150 mg/ml. The in vitro free radical scavenging activity showed that the aqueous, ethanol and n-hexane extracts showed maximum antioxidant activity of 87.89, 78.68 and 47.18 % at 25 mg/ml concentration, respectively. The results showed that the aerial part of S. punctata contains components that have antibacterial and antioxidant properties that substantiate the medicinal importance of the plant. Key words: Satureja punctata, antibacterial activity, antioxidant activity, zone of inhibition.

The antibacterial activity of Monodora myristica, Xylopia aethiopica, Piper guineense, Tetrapleura tetraptera against selected human pathogens like Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumonia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi and Streptococcus mutans were ascertained using standard microbiological procedures. The herbaceous plants were sun dried and ground into powdery form. Fifty grams (50 g) each of the herbaceous plants were submerged into three (3) different extraction solvents (Ethanol, Methanol and Aqueous) in a conical flask, the flask were shaken intermittently for 24 hours. The herbaceous plants were sieved using whatman number one filter paper. The sieved extracts were allowed to air dry and the dried extracts were stored in a sterile sample bottle in the refrigerator until use. Agar well diffusion technique was used to determine the antibacterial activity/efficacy of the herbaceous plants. The antibacterial activity of ethanol, methanol and aqueous extracts of Azadirachta indica were determined. The result showed that aqueous extract had antimicrobial activity against all the test bacteria, ethanol extract had activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli, but showed no activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Streptococcus mutans and Salmonella typhi. Methanol extract had activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli. Aqueous extract had activity similar to that of ethanol and methanol except that Streptococcus mutans which showed resistance to ethanol and methanol extracts was susceptible to aqueous extracts. Phytochemical analysis conducted shows that the herbaceous plant extracts contains substances such as alkaloids, saponin, tannin, flavonoid and phenol. The result obtained from this study revealed that these herbaceous extracts possess bioactive substances which had antibacterial activity on the test bacterial used in the study. Ethanol, methanol and aqueous extracts of Azadiractha Indica, Monodora myristica, Xylopia aethiopica, piper guineense, and Tetrapleura tetraptera had a remarkable activity against Staphylococcus aureus, E.coli and Klebsiella pneumonia while Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Streptococcus mutans and Salmonella typhi were resistant to both ethanol and methanol extracts. However, further in vitro and in vivo studies should be carried out to identify the active constituents responsible for their antibacterial activity.

Studies on the antibacterial activity of Khaya senegalensis [(Desr.) A. Juss)] stem bark extract on Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi [(ex Kauffmann and Edwards) Le Minor and Popoff

Background: This study highlights the use of plants as a vital part of Iraq’s health care. One of the most significant plants for medicine is Camellia sinensis. Objectives: phytochemically and chromatographically evaluation of C. sinensis and its antibacterial activity. Materials and Methods: The phytochemical analysis revealed the occurrence of alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids, and phenols, but glycosides are not found in extracts of C. sinensis leaves. Antibacterial efficacy of the herbal extracts revealed that both aqueous and ethanol extracts showed some degree of inhibition of growth in Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus pneumonia, and Staphylococcus aureus. Results: Nine functional groups were identified through Fourier-transform infrared spectrophotometer, and 10 phytochemical compounds were identified through gas chromatography–mass spectrum in the ethanol extract. The antibacterial activity of aqueous and ethanolic green tea extracts was tested. Both types of extracts showed clear biological activity against the studied bacterial species; the inhibitory effect increased with increasing concentration, with the highest activity of ethanolic and aqueous extracts against Salmonella spp.(inhibition zone 40, 36 mm, respectively) at 200 mg/mL, but less inhibitory effect appears on S. pyogenes when using aqueous extract (12 mm) at 50 mg/mL and (18 mm) at 200 mg/mL. Conclusions: Various therapeutically active compounds are present in the aqueous and ethanolic extract of C. sinensis, which encourages its use in the treatment of microbial infections. Further investigations are needed for the chemical composition of green tea, and other techniques like HPLC may be used. Further tests are necessary for its antimicrobial activity, either in vitro or in vivo.

Detección de metabolitos secundarios en Ambrosia peruviana Willd y determinación de la actividad antibacteriana y antihelmíntica

The aqueous and ethanol extracts prepared from some lichens species were evaluated for antibacterial activity against six standard strains (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis) and two environmental strains (Aeromonas) that were isolated from different lakes. The aqueous and ethanol extracts showed a variable range of antibacterial activity to both standard strains and environmental strains. Ethanol extracts showed better antibacterial activity than aqueus extracts. It was found that the inhibition zone of tested bacteria against extracts have changed between 07 - 15 mm (diameter of inhibition zone). Some lichen extracts have moderate antibacterial effect. Both ethanol and aqueous extracts have inhibited the growth of three bacteria. Neither aqueous extracts nor ethanol extracts were inhibited the growth of five bacteria. The aqueous extract of Peltigera polydactyla and the ethanol extract of the Ramalina farinacea exhibited potent antibacterial activities.

Various strategies have been employed in the treatment and management of Salmonella infection however, Salmonella strains have gained resistance to antibiotics. This study was to determine in vitro anti-Salmonella activity of Boerhaavia diffusa leaf extract against clinical isolate of Salmonella typhi and Salmonella typhi ATCC 14028. The aqueous and ethanol extracts of B. diffusa were studied for their antibacterial activity against pathogenic Salmonella typhi. This study was carried out between April and September 2018. The in vitro antibacterial activity was performed by agar well diffusion method and broth dilution using spectrophotometric method and the results were expressed as the average diameter of zone of inhibition of bacterial growth around the well and optical density respectively. It was observed that aqueous extract exerted slightly higher activity than ethanolic extract as revealed by the mean diameter of zone of inhibitions at a concentration of 200 mg/ml, the aqueous extract had 35.21±0.47 mm (Salmonella typhi ATCC 14028) compared with ethanol extract 26.41±0.32 mm (clinical). However, in the broth dilution method, ethanol extract significantly (p=0.05) reduced the cell, at 48 hours, the optical density of clinical isolate of S. typhi treated at concentration of 200 mg/ml of extract was 0.47±0.02 nm while at the same concentration of extract, aqueous extract had an optical density of 0.52±0.11 nm respectively. The phytochemical assay revealed that tannin (5.18±0.02 mg/g) and quinone (8.45±0.13 mg/g) in ethanol extract was significantly (p=0.05) higher than aqueous extract while saponin (14.18±0.06 mg/g) was higher in the aqueous extract. The ethanol and aqueous extracts of leaves of B. diffusa whole plant exhibited significant antibacterial activity against both clinical and typed Salmonella typhi. Therefore, the plant extract could be used for the treatment of Salmonellosis, however, the in vivo studies is needed to ascertain the safety of the extract.

Medicinal plants have a great potential for providing novel drug leads with proven mechanism of action. The aim of our study was to investigate in vitro antimicrobial activity of ethanolic extract prepared from Ficus benghalensis L. leaves against Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus locally isolated and Streptococcus pneumoniae) and Gram-negative bacterial strains (Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli), as well as against fungus Candida albicans to determine the possible use of this plant in preventing infections. Antimicrobial activity of crude extract of the plant sample was evaluated by the paper disc diffusion method. Ethanolic extract obtained from leaves of Ficus benghalensis showed moderate antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, while no significant antibacterial activity against Klebsiella pneumoniae and Streptococcus pneumoniae, methicillin-resistant S. aureus and Candida albicans was demonstrated. Among the tested microbial strains, bacteria were found to be more sensitive to many of the test agents than fungi. The antibacterial activity was more pronounced on the Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus) than the Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa). The broad antibacterial activities of this extract could be as a result of the plant secondary metabolites (carbohydrates, reducing sugars, sterols, glycosides, phenolic compounds, tannins, saponins and flavonoids). Therefore, Ficus benghalensis has a great medicinal potential for the therapy of infections induced by Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria and may be used as a natural antiseptic and antimicrobial agent in medicine. Further investigation is necessary to identify those bioactive compounds, which will be a platform for clinical applications.

Background: Traditional medicine has employed Azadirachta indica to treat a variety of ailments. However, there is little information on the use of this plant in Zambia. Objective: To evaluate the phytochemicals and antibacterial activity of Azadirachta indica leaf extracts against Escherichia coli. Materials and Methods: This was a laboratory-based experimental study in which ethanol and water were used for extraction by maceration. Phytochemical analysis was then done on the leaf extract. Using the disc diffusion method, varying concentrations of A. indica aqueous and ethanolic extracts were used to test the antibacterial activity of A. indica against Escherichia coli. The sensitivity of the tested microorganisms to aqueous and ethanolic leaf extracts was shown by zones of inhibition after incubation. Results: The phytochemical screening of the A. indica leaves revealed the presence of phenolics and tannins in both the ethanol and aqueous extract. Saponins, flavonoids and alkaloids were only present in the aqueous extract. While steroids were only present in the ethanol extract. The antibacterial activity of A. indica leaves extract was determined by zones of inhibition which showed that both aqueous and ethanol extracts had activity against E. coli. The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration was determined at 10 mg/mL for the aqueous extract and 20 mg/mL for the ethanol extract. The zones of inhibition increased with concentration. Conclusion: The extracts of A. indica displayed antibacterial activity against E. coli in a dose-dependent manner. Comparatively, the aqueous extract produced better antibacterial properties against E. coli than the ethanolic extract.

Asphodelus fistulosus (A. fistulosus) is a wild plant grows in Jordan. Traditionally, it is used to treat different medical conditions and diseases such as respiratory ailments, against burns and dermatomucosal infections.This study aims to find out the effects of A. fistulosus aqueous and ethanolic crude extracts on Staphylococcus aureus(S. aureus) as gram positive bacteria and Escherichia coli (E. coli) as gram negative bacteria and to investigate which one will be affected either by aqueous and/or ethanolic crude extracts of A. fistulosus shooting parts that were collected from Jerash in the north of Jordan. Agar well diffusion method was used to evaluate the antibacterial activity of the crude extracts. In addition, MIC (minimum inhibitory concentration) as well as MBC (minimum bactericidal concentration) were determined against both types of bacteria. The results showed that flower aqueous extract of A. fistulosus was very effective against E. coli (20.0 ± 0.50) mm and caused a (14.0 ± 0.50) mm inhibition to S. aureus. The ethanolic extract of stem was very effective cauesed a (19.0 ± 0.50) mm inhibition in both bacterial species. Respectively, both S. aureus and E. coli were inhibited by ethanolic and aqueous extracts (mixture1 and mixture2) (15.0 ± 0.00 mm and 10.5 ± 0.50 mm). The highest antimbacterial activity was observed for the leaves aqueous extract against E.coli (0.06120 mg/mL). The obtained MIC values from A. fistulosus parts extracts demonstrated antibacterial activity ranged between 7.606 and 0.06120 mg/mL. The highest antimicrobial activity was recorded in the leaves aqueous extract against E. coli.The MBC value of stem aqueous extract was 5.00 mg/mL against both S. aureus and E. coli. On the other hand, ethanolic and aqueous extracts of the leaves gave MBC values 5.00 mg/mL, and 0.156 mg/mL, respectively, against E. coli.Based on the results of this study, it can be concluded that there is good inhibitory effect of aqueous and ethanolic of A. fistulosus shooting parts extracts on growth of E. coli and S. aureus. Adding to that, stem ethanolic extract has the most effective against S. aureus while aqueous extract of flower has the most effective against E. coli.So, it is recommended to have further future studies on the A. fistulosus shooting parts crude extract bioactive components and the mechanism of how these constituents affect these types of bacteria.