Physicochemical Changes of Reused Cooking Oils Used to Prepare Potato Chips, Chicken, and Beef

Background: Deep-fat frying induces organoleptic and physicochemical changes in both oils and fried products. Excessive use of frying oils accrues decomposition products with potential hazards to human health. Optimizing frying conditions and selecting the best frying oils are needed for better-fried products. Objective: This study was conducted to investigate the physicochemical changes and thermal behavior of vegetable oils (olive, canola, corn, sunflower and soybean oils) during deep-fat frying of potato chips, and determine the optimum conditions required to produce the best quality fried product. Methods: Thermal behavior, organoleptic characteristics, physicochemical properties (color index, viscosity, specific gravity, peroxide value, free fatty acids, total polar compounds), and fatty acid compositions of oils were investigated during the frying process every 8 hours up to 40 hours of heating. Results: Oils showed different quality and thermal stability. The optimum time and temperature for frying were 10 minutes and 180°C. Sensory attributes, physicochemical characteristics and fatty acid composition of oils were markedly affected by heating. Olive oil was the most stable for frying. Total polar compounds of 27% (the rejection point for frying oils) would be reached upon heating olive oil at 180°C for 114 hours. The corresponding times were 45, 43, 30 and 26 hours for canola, corn, sunflower and soybean oils, respectively. Conclusion: Olive oil showed the highest stability and produced the best-fried product, followed by canola oil. Frying time increased with extended heating, and it could be used as a good indicator of oil quality and when it should be discarded.

Effect of rosemary and sage extracts on frying performance of refined , bleached and deodorized (RBD) palm olein during deep-fat frying

The development of polymers from renewable raw materials while ensuring that the material is recyclable after the end of its life cycle is essential for Europe to achieve the goals set by the Green Deal and to approach climate neutrality in 2050. The goal of the TReResin project is to develop a new type of thermosetting resin with almost 100 % renewable raw material content, which can be recycled by changing the chemical conformation of the polymer due to the thermally reversible reactions of βamino polyesters. Within the project, Aza-Michael components, donor and acceptor, will be synthesized from used cooking oil (UCO). UCO is a waste without nutritional value generated in food processing industries, restaurants, and households. UCO is a combination of triglycerides and free fatty acids that have undergone physicochemical changes during food preparation (high temperature, moisture). Life cycle assessment (LCA) can be helpful early in the development phase, particularly for chemical processes, in identifying hotspots, comparing alternatives, assessing possible environmental implications, selecting production routes, and improving the processes themselves. The aim of the study was to evaluate the environmental impact of UCO-based AzaMichael donors and acceptors developed at the Latvian State Institute of Wood Chemistry suitable for the development of bio-based vitrimer resins. The synthesis technology currently is at TRL 2. The chosen system boundary was cradle-to-(laboratory) gate, and the functional unit was 10 g UCO-based Aza-Michael donor or acceptor. The production system for Aza-Michael components included feedstock production, required energy, and other chemicals needed for the synthesis process. The LCA model was built according to the ISO 14040/44:2006 series. LCA analysis was performed using SimaPro 9.6 software by Pré Consultants. Potential environmental impacts were assessed according to ReCiPe’s (2016) v1.1 midpoint method, and global warming potential (GWP) was assessed using the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2021 GWP 100a’ method. For the first time, the environmental impact of a lab-scale bio-based vitrimer component synthesis is investigated, hot spots are identified, and routes for improvement are explored. Primary data for the life cycle inventory were gathered from the experiments in the laboratory which is an advantage and best-case scenario. However, the LCA also highlighted the challenges of performing LCA on new types of chemical synthesis pathways, as background data availability and quality are limiting.

Cooking oil was one of the basic needs which consumed by the whole of Indonesian society. The high price of palm cooking oil and the lack of knowledge caused the repeated using of palm cooking oil which is harmful to health. The objective was to determine the physicochemical changes of used palm oil (Jelantah) on chicken frying. This research was using purposive sampling method. The experimental design used completely randomized design with one factor of frying frequency which were 0, 3, 7 and 10 times. Statistical analysis showed that the physicochemical tests (color analysis, peroxide value, acid value and moisture content) in each test was significant or significantly different, from the linear regression predicted that the frying frequencies which were used in fried chicken vendors were 16-54 times. In addition, it can be seen the characteristic qualities of used palm oil on chicken frying namely: color analysis L from 39.40% to 46.49%, a from 5.80% to 9.26%, b from 16,57% to 22.82%; peroxide value from 1.599 meq/kg to5.623 meq/kg; acid value from 0.076% to 0.153%; and water content from 0.021% to 0.267%. The physicochemical tests of used palm oil sample from fried chicken vendors namely: color analysis at L of 27.11%, a of 9.63%, b of 18.02%; peroxide value of 10.07 meq / Kg; acid value 0.434%; and water content of 0.166%.

Objective: The aim of this study was to evaluate physicochemical changes in var. JB 2601 chip-type function for suppression of irrigation and fertigation in Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil. Theoretical Framework: The potato, originally from the Andes, is the fourth most produced food in the world. In 2021, Brazil cultivated 115,925 ha, with 3.7 million tons. Drip irrigation improves productivity and quality, while proper nutrition is crucial to avoid reducing quality. However, water scarcity and the high cost of fertilizers are challenges for production, aggravated by climate change (BESHARAT, 2020). Method: The experiment was carried out at the Teaching, Research and Extension Farm of UNESP, in Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil, in a Latoxisol A randomized block design with 6 replications was used, evaluating three irrigation suppressions (80, 90 and 100 DAP) and two levels of fertigation. Planting was manual on 06/15/2020, with drip irrigation management. Physicochemical variables of the tubers after harvesting at 94, 104 and 114 DAP were evaluated, with statistical analysis by ANOVA and Tukey's test at 5% probability. Results and Discussion: The interaction between irrigation suppression (SI) and fertigation (F) significantly affected yield, soluble solids, total acidity and tuber maturation index (p<0.01). Irrigation suppression impacted pH, firmness, and ash composition. Yield was similar between F1 and S1 treatments, but early soil drying affected the results. The increase in the duration of SI reduced the total acidity and the maturation index, indicating an influence on the quality of the tubers. Research Implications: This thesis highlights the growing concern of society in relation to environmental issues, especially in the face of adverse climatic events and the irregular distribution of precipitation throughout the year. Originality/Value: The results are relevant to the potato production sector, offering insights for effective irrigation and fertilization management strategies. These sustainable practices can contribute to food security, preservation of natural resources, and meet the growing global demand for energy and carbohydrates.

Frying performance of palm olein, sesame oil and canola oil and their blends was investigated by assessing the physicochemical changes (i.e., color, viscosity, Free Fatty Acid (FFA), Peroxide Value (PV), Anisidine Value (AV), TOTOX Value (TV), Polymer Content (PC) and specific extinction) of oils during deep-fat frying of potato chips. Six frying oils, namely refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) palm olein (A), canola oil (C), RBD palm olein/sesame oil (AB, 1:1 w/w), RBD palm olein/canola oil (AC, 1:1 w/w), sesame oil/canola oil (BC, 1:1 w/w) and RBD palm olein/sesame oil/canola oil (ABC, 1:1:1 w/w/w) were considered as the independent variables. The physicochemical properties of the frying oils were significantly (p<0.05) influenced by the type and concentration of the component oil(s). Among all six frying oils, canola oil (C) generally exhibited the least chemical stability during the frying process and RBD palm olein (A) the highest.

Physicochemical changes include peroxide value (POV), free fatty acids (FFA), and canola and sunflower moisture contents. Palm oils, a blend of three oils, oil, moisture, and salt retention, and potato chips fried in these oils during three frying counts were investigated in the current study. Results revealed that increasing the frying counts resulted in increased POV, FFA, and moisture percentage of oils, with lower values in blend oils, followed by palm olein oil. FFA and POV after the third round of frying were found to be 0.09±0.01 and 0.66±0.01%, 0.12±0.01 and 2.6±0.11%, 0.13±0.01, and 1.9±0.11%, and 0.05±0.00 and 0.59±0.01%, for palm olein, sunflower, canola and blend oils, respectively, and these were significantly higher than calculated after first frying. Analysis of chips after the first, second, and third frying showed an increment in moisture, oil, and salt retained in chips, while blend oils caused non-significant effects. The oil percentage of chips fried in palm olein, canola, sunflower, and blend oils, after third frying, was 31.47±0.38, 31.99±0.03, 31.99±0.03 and 29.48±0.30%, respectively, while moisture percentages were 1.49±0.01, 1.83±0.01, 1.83±0.01 and 1.76±0.01%, respectively, and these values were higher than of first frying. Higher sensory scores regarding overall acceptability were obtained by chips fried in sunflower oil and lower by blended oils.

Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to optimize the amounts of rosemary and sage extracts together with citric acid as synergist antioxidants in stabilizing refined, bleached, and deodorized palm olein during repeated deep‐fat frying of potato chips. For all physicochemical properties studied, these phytochemical antioxidant treatments significantly (P&lt;0.05) reduced the oxidation rate of the oil. During 5 d of frying, anisidine value, peroxide value, free fatty acid, polymer content, color units, viscosity, and absorbances at 232 and 268 nm gradually increased, whereas iodine value and ratio of 18∶2/16∶0 decreased. Further statistical analyses, including coefficient of determination (R2) and probability of F values, indicated that mathematical models for each physicochemical parameter could be developed confidently in this study, with R2 for all parameters greater than 0.90. These results suggested that an optimal mixture of phytochemical antioxidants derived from rosemary and sage together with citric acid could be produced using RSM for stabilizing thermally processed oil. For many physicochemical parameters examined, the use of moderate levels of antioxidants could result in optimal responses.

Cooking oil is one of nine basic commodities needed by society. Disruption of continuity of supply of products will greatly affect the prices and caused upheavals that are not desired. Various means of oil production, from how to do simple home industry through the use of technology and high costs that can only be done by big industry. On the use of cooking oil or multiple times, for example in fruit frying chips, potato chips, etc., which will cause deterioration in quality caused by the heating process with high temperature which would result in physical or chemical changes such as blackish color, embossed froth , the smell of burning, longer frying time and rancid odor that would restrict the use of cooking oil. Bleaching using a 7% weight mixture of active carbon and bleaching earth / bleaching earth (1: 3) gives the results of fruit chips used frying oil with color appearance closer to a new cooking oil. Keywords: bleaching, used frying oil

Knowledge, attitudes and practices of processors of deep-fried fish and potato chips with regard to cooking oil quality – A case of Kampala District, Uganda

Exploration of different methods to assess dietary acrylamide exposure in pregnant women participating in the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study (MoBa)

Deep-fried foods are generally popular world over. To cut production costs, the oil used is often recycled. This is concerning because deep-frying is done aerobically at 160–190 °C leading to oil degradation and formation of hazardous compounds. This study evaluated the quality of cooking oil used to deep-fry potato chips (n = 35) and fish (n = 35) by street food-vendors in Kampala, Uganda. Additionally, a safe oil recycling frequency was determined by separately deep-frying several batches of fish and potato chips. After each frying cycle, the quality of oil was analyzed. Over 94 % of oils used to deep-fry chips and fish obtained from food vendors surpassed the recommended specification for peroxide value (10 mEq O2/Kg). Their mean peroxide values were about four times higher than the recommendation. Moreover, none of these oils met the Thiobarbituric acid specification of <2 mg DA/Kg. Oil samples used by vendors to deep-fry fish (100 %) and chips (60 %) had acid values beyond the quality specification of 0.6 mg KOH/g. Their moisture contents and oil densities were almost twice the recommendations. In contrast, their iodine value and color intensities were below the quality specifications. The recycling experiments showed that peroxide values remained consistent while other parameters exceeded quality specifications after the second deep-frying cycle. Therefore, recycled oils used by street-food vendors in Kampala are unsuitable for human consumption. The practice of cooking oil recycling should be discouraged, though it has financial implications especially for commercial food establishments.

Olestra is a new noncaloric food ingredient made from sugar and vegetable oil combined in such a way that it is not digested or absorbed. Olestra will be used to replace the cooking fat and oils used to make savory snacks such as potato chips. An environmental assessment (EA) was conducted to determine whether or not this consumer use of olestra would result in adverse impacts to the environment. The EA was also submitted to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration as part of the agency's review and approval process for this new food ingredient. To provide a conservative assessment, that is, to not underestimate potential environmental risk, exposure estimates were based on an upper-bound annual consumption value of 228 × 106 kg (about 500 million pounds) and the assumption that the entire amount would enter wastewater. The olestra environmental database is extensive and includes studies to address its fate and effects in wastewater treatment systems, sludge-amended soils, and receiving waters. Testing showed olestra was not toxic to aquatic organisms including bacteria, algae, zooplankton, and fish nor to terrestrial organisms including bacteria, plants, earthworms, and nine mammalian species. Testing also showed olestra will not bioconcentrate or persist. Aerobic biodegradation was demonstrated in both aquatic and terrestrial matrices and a plausible mineralization pathway was detailed that has application to both aerobic and anaerobic environments. Because of its very low water solubility (5–42 μg/L) and sorptive nature (Kd ranging from 10,000 to 287,000 L/kg), the vast majority of olestra that enters the environment will be associated with wastewater solids and sludges. Overall removal for primary and secondary treatment was 91 to 94%. Olestra was shown to be mineralized at a rate sufficient to prevent significant accumulation in soil even with annual reapplication of sludge (half-lives were 10–88 d depending upon the physical form [liquid or solid] of olestra). Laboratory and bench scale testing showed olestra did not adversely effect conventional wastewater treatment. Olestra exhibited no adverse effects on total suspended solids or chemical oxygen demand. Olestra's properties are compatible with disposal in landfills and by incineration. Olestra did not adversely impact full-scale septic tanks or physical properties of sludge-amended agricultural soils. Based on conservative exposure estimates and extensive testing, the evidence indicates that consumer use of olestra will not result in adverse effects on wastewater treatment or aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.

This study was aimed to test the performance of ‘AGROWINDO’ cooking oil spinner by determining the best spinning rate and spinning duration on several types of chips processed at home-industry scale. The research was conducted in two factors : the spinning rate (rpm) 1: 4 = 400, 1:5 = 450, and 1:6 = 500 rpm, and the duration of spinning time: 40, 60, and 80 seconds; cassava chips, banana chips, and sweet potato chips were used as materials. The treatments were replicated three times. The data of cooking oil drained or removed from the chips and the amount of rejected chips were analyzed descriptively, while the data obtained from organoleptic test of the chips were analyzed using ANOVA, then continued tested using orthogonal polynomials at 1% and 5% levels. The results of this study indicated that: the spinning rate (rpm) and spinning duration had an effect on level of disposal cooking oil and amount of rejected chips. The highest level of cooking oil removed from the chips was found at sweet potato chips with value of 19.5%. This value was obtained through spinning rate of 500 rpm and spinning duration of 80 seconds.

A survey was conducted in Lilongwe city urban markets in Malawi, to assess the quality of cooking oil used for frying potato chips. Purposive sampling was performed to come up with respondents who were using vegetable oils. A stratified random sampling was used to select the 32 informal food processors who were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. Oil samples were collected from the most commonly used brand of oil. Fifteen respondents were selected and these were divided into three categories of five: those who were not reusing the oil, those who were reusing the oil and those who were preparing potato chips and chicken in the same oil, for chemical analysis. The preliminary results showed that while the majority (59.4%) of the informal food processors discarded the oil after 1 day, 3.1% discarded it after 4 days and another 12.5% after 3 days. A larger proportion of the respondents (40.6%) used the leftover oils at home, 37.5% kept it in oil bottles, 3.1% kept it in plastic papers for reuse the following day. Also, most respondents (57%) indicated dark colour as the sign of oil deterioration, 29% discarded the oil after noticing foam formation while 8.2% and 6.1% said they discarded the oil after noticing a bad smell and food absorbing the oils respectively. A physical observation of the various oils showed that for most of the respondents (34%), the oils were dark brown in colour, in 22%, the oils were slightly dark brown and 16%, the oils were brown. Foam formation was noticed in 13% of the respondents. It was also noted that 91% of the respondents had not been trained or briefed of food quality and safety issues. A chemical analysis of the oils showed high values of free fatty acids (range, 0.84–1.4112 compared with 0.42 in the fresh oil) and peroxide values (range 14.7–16.6 compared with 9.0 in the fresh oil). It may be concluded that the oils being used by the informal food processors in Malawi are of poor quality and so the foods cooked in them may be a health hazard to the consumers and the processors themselves. Although this work in ongoing, it may be recommended at the outset that the health department of the city assemblies should inspect these oils for the good health of the consumers.