Phthalate pollution and remediation strategies: A review

Abstract

Phthalate esters (PAEs) are normally used as plasticizers and has potential to leach out from various polymeric materials. Their presence in different environmental matrices has become a significant concern, as they are endocrine disrupting compounds causing various reproductive, genetical, and developmental abnormalities. As a result, it is urgent to develop a robust technology that can mineralize these contaminants from the environment. This review focuses on origin and fate of PAEs in the environment, their exposure routes and health effects, and various remediation strategies from wastewater. The article largely focuses on in-depth understanding of different physicochemical, biological and advanced oxidation processes currently being used for the treatment of PAEs. In addition, based on the physicochemical properties of PAEs molecules, their adsorption interaction mechanisms with adsorbents are introduced. This review also explores the range of materials to be used as an adsorbent and photocatalyst and composite materials can enhance the performance by adsorption followed by mineralization. For large scale PAEs removal, semiconductor photocatalysis and integrated processes seems to be an effective technique for the removal and mineralization of PAEs. Finally, for scaling up the photocatalytic technology, parameters such as, improved reactor design, role of water matrix and economic aspects were discussed and future research directions on catalyst agglomeration, adsorbents design, modification, and synthesis are proposed. Therefore, from the techno-economic perspectives factors like, improving active sites and adsorption rate, self-cleaning catalyst surface, renewable light sources, radical scavenging by organic matter and catalyst recovery need to be addressed for transforming the process form ‘lab’ to ‘land’.