PHASED SATELLITE IMPACT WITH IDEAL AND OTHER LEAD ANGLES

Threats posed by counterspace capabilities are directed against space systems, their supporting ground infrastructure, and data links between space systems and ground infrastructure. Space countermeasures include direct attack and co-orbital anti-satellite systems, cyber attacks, electronic warfare and directed energy. Earth as seen from space is a key visual element in planning operations. This necessitates a careful selection of continuous review of certain areas of operational and strategic interest. Satellite coverage planning covers the entire process from the idea of a new satellite system to final in-orbit testing. It is a multidisciplinary activity that ranges from defining the areas of interest in the relevant geographic areas, designing the appropriate orbit, and arriving at the determination of the necessary sensors that will meet the mission need.

This paper analyzes the electronic warfare capabilities of the People’s Liberation Army Strategic Support Force (PLASSF), established in 2015 in China. Based on the investigation, this paper aims to examine the impacts of electronic warfare capabilities of PLASSF on South Korea as well as the implications for Korean security. The core mission of the PLASSF is to perform space, cyber, electronic, and psychological warfare. Under the Network Systems Department of the PLASSF, the units for electronic warfare operates ground-based equipment, (un) manned aircraft, and electronic warfare satellites. Based on this fact, this paper argues the impacts of the PLASSF’s electronic warfare capabilities are threefold: First, the PLASSF’s manned electronic aircraft allows them to collect the electronic intelligence regarding the major military equipment not only of the Korean military but of the U.S. Forces in Korea. Second, it is also expected that the PLASSF would conduct electronic warfare activities very close to the Korean Peninsula by utilizing its unmanned stealth electronic aircraft. Third, the PLASSF is highly likely to gather signals intelligence from space via electronic warfare satellites. In this regard, it is necessary for the Korean military to 1) develop a more concrete concept of electronic warfare; 2) explore the ways to refuse China’s electronic information collection; and 3) secure the electronic warfare countermeasure weapons system.

Cyber threats to space systems are more intense, virulent, and pervasive than ever before. All segments of the space enterprise (space, ground, user) present potential cyber attack surfaces. National Security Space (NSS) systems, in particular, are potential targets of advanced cyber attacks seeking to disrupt, degrade, or destroy critical capabilities. The rapid evolution of space and cyber threats requires accelerated leveraging of S&T (science and technology) research into fielded capability. The can only happen with a more rapid requirements analysis and maturation process, coupled with a more agile and responsive acquisition timeline. To be effective and affordable, cyber resiliency characteristics need to be integral to systems architectures starting at the early concept stages. To support more agile cyber capabilities deployment, the Air Force Space & Missiles Systems Center (SMC) has developed a methodology to ensure that focused cyber threats analysis is tightly coupled with space systems developmental planning activities, beginning with early space system concepts. Once driving cyber threats for a mission concept are determined, a risk-based approach is used to identify candidate S&T efforts to bridge key cyber capability gaps. This methodology supports increased cyber resiliency and affordability for future NSS space systems.

Spacecraft Collision Avoidance Using Aerodynamic Drag

This paper examines the efficiency of the international legal framework governing activities of States in outer space in view of the existing gaps within it allowing for space weaponization and the use of force in outer space. Purpose: the paper attempts to answer the following question – is there a clear line between peaceful exploration and militarization of outer space, and is it legally permissible to deploy anti-satellite and anti-missile systems in outer space? Methods: the study employs general scientific methods, legal interpreting and forecasting. Results: the following conclusions have resulted from the study: the 1967 Outer Space Treaty does not cover potentially harmful activities of States in outer space; there is no general agreement on the definition of «space weapon»; the line that's drawn between peaceful space exploration and militarization appears to be blurry; the emphasis in understanding the term «peaceful» has shifted towards the meaning of «non-aggressive»; non-aggressive military uses of space allow for the deployment of defensive weapon systems in space.

This paper is primarily a review of work on the motions of artificial satellites carried out in the Department of Celestial Mechanics of Moscow University during 1957–62. The paper describes the formulation of problems and main results of work in the following areas: 1) Theory of translational rotational motions. Primary attention is devoted to the rotational motion of artificial satellites (Duboshin, Rybakov, Kondurar, Yarov-Yarovoi). 2) Construction of intermediate orbits based on averaging of the right-hand sides of two differential equations of motion and on the application of the probability theory (Shchigolev). 3) Analytical theory of the motion of artificial earth satellites. Perturbations through the fifth order are taken into account (Orlov). 4) An analytical theory of motion of lunar and outer space probes (YarovYarovoi). 5) Work on the region of convergence of Hill’s series in the restricted problem of three bodies (Ryabov). 6) Construction of an analytical theory of motion of artificial earth satellites subject to the following perturbations: Earth oblateness, triaxiality, atmospheric drag, influence of other planets (Grebenikov, Demin, Aks enov). 7) An analytical theory of motion of an artificial satellite in the gravitational field of the earth, based on a generalization of the problem of two fixed centers (Grebenikov, Demin, Aksenov).

In this thesis I present the Time and Synchronization System for the JEM-EUSO pathfinder, which I designed and developed as main part of my PhD work. JEM-EUSO has been designed to address basic problems of fundamental physics and high-energy astrophysics investigating the nature of the Extreme Energy Cosmic Rays, EECRs (E$>\SI{5 e19}{\electronvolt}$), which constitute the most energetic component of the cosmic radiation. Cosmic rays are highly penetrating ionizing radiation arriving at the Earth isotropically from outer space. The phenomenon of cosmic rays has been discussed since the beginning of last century, although the study of EECR has progressed considerably over the last decade, any astrophysical accelerators able to produce such extreme events has been identified so far. These high energy particles can also shed light about the regions in which they were accelerated and the vast spaces through which they passed on their way to Earth. However, there are still a lot of unanswered question about their energy spectrum, their composition and their origin. Current data indicates that only a significant increase in the exposure at the highest energies will allow to answer all the questions concerning the particles which strike the Earth with such enormous energies. JEM-EUSO will pioneer the investigation from Space of EECR-induced Extensive Air Showers, making accurate measurements of the primary energy, arrival direction and composition of EECRs, using a target volume far greater than is possible from the ground. While the research and development work for JEM-EUSO is ongoing, the JEM-EUSO collaboration is completing several pathfinder experiments: EUSO-TA, EUSO-Balloon, and Mini-EUSO. The first chapter gives a general introduction to cosmic ray physics and detectors. It also summarizes experimental results above the ankle of the spectrum with particular emphasis on those obtained above \SI{e19}{\electronvolt}. The first chapter will give a brief summary of the field of cosmic ray physics, focusing on EECR. As at very high energies cosmic rays can be studied only by measuring the secondary radiation they generate in the Earth's atmosphere, also the mechanisms which originate these particle shower and the most common techniques employed their detection are exploited. In the chapter there is also a short summary of the experimental results obtained by the two main experiments which observe EECR, the Pierre Auger Observatory (PAO) and Telescope Array (TA) project, on spectrum, mass and arrival directions of cosmic rays in the energy region in the top end of the spectrum (above \SI{e19,5}{\electronvolt}). The second chapter is devoted to an analysis of the scientific goals of JEM-EUSO and its innovations compared to the other observatory of EECR. Then a detailed description of the operating principles of the telescope and its main components will be presented, paying particular attention to the timing and synchronization system and to its links with the electronics of the focal surface. The EUSO-Balloon mission and instrument will be described in the following chapter. The forth chapter describes the first part of my thesis work, which consisted in the design of the timing and synchronization system for the JEM-EUSO pathfinders. The system will be described together with the design strategy and the implementation. In the following chapter every phase of the integration and assembly of the EUSO-Balloon pathfinder which involved the Time and Synchronization System will be shortly reviewed. Then, in the sixth chapter I will describe the EUSO-Balloon launch campaign, which was held in Timmins (Canada) in August 2014. The last chapter is devoted to show preliminary results of the analysis of data taken during the first EUSO-Balloon flight.

Navigation is defined as the science of getting a craft or person from one place to another. The development of radio in the past century brought fort new navigation aids that enabled users, or rather their receivers, to compute their position with the help of signals from one or more radio-navigation system . The U.S. Global Positioning System (GPS) was envisioned as a satellite system for three-dimensional position and velocity determination fulfilling the following key attributes: global coverage, continuous/all weather operation, ability to serve high-dynamic platforms, and high accuracy. It represents the fruition of several technologies, which matured and came together in the second half of the 20th century. In particular, stable space-born platforms, ultra-stable atomic frequency standards, spread spectrum signaling, and microelectronics are the key developments in the realization and success of GPS. While GPS was under development, the Soviet Union undertook to develop a similar system called GLObalnaya NAvigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema (GLONASS). Both GLONASS and GPS were designed primarily for the military, but have transitioned in the past decades towards providing civilian and Safety-of-Life services as well. Other Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) are now being developed and deployed by governments, international consortia, and commercial interests. Among these are the European system Galileo and the Chinese system Beidou. Other regional systems are the Japanese Quasi-Zenith Satellite System and the Indian Gagan. GNSS have become a crucial component in countless modern systems, e.g. in telecommunication, navigation, remote sensing, precise agriculture, aviation and timing. One of the main threats to the reliable and safe operation of GNSS are the variable propagation conditions encountered by GNSS signals as they pass through the upper atmosphere of the Earth. In particular, irregular concentration of electrons in the ionosphere induce fast fluctuations in the amplitude and phase of GNSS signals called scintillations. The latter can greatly degrade the performance of GNSS receivers, with consequent economical impacts on service providers and users of high performance applications. New GNSS navigation signals and codes are expected to help mitigate such effects, although to what degree is still unknown. Furthermore, these new technologies will only come on line incrementally over the next decade as new GNSS satellites become operational. In the meantime, GPS users who need high performance navigation solution, e.g., offshore drilling companies, might be forced to postpone operations for which precision position knowledge is required until the ionospheric disturbances are over. For this reason continuous monitoring of scintillations has become a priority in order to try to predict its occurrence. Indeed, it is a growing scientific and industrial activity. However, Radio Frequency (RF) Interference from other telecommunication systems might threaten the monitoring of scintillation activity. Currently, the majority of the GNSS based application are highly exposed to unintentional or intentional interference issues. The extremely weak power of the GNSS signals, which is actually completely buried in the noise floor at the user receiver antenna level, puts interference among the external error contributions that most degrade GNSS performance. It is then of interest to study the effects these external systems may have on the estimation of ionosphere activity with GNSS. In this dissertation, we investigate the effect of propagation issues in GNSS, focusing on scintillations, interference and the joint effect of the two phenomena

To approach the study of the cosmic rays in the energy range E > 1020 eV, the upper end of the spectrum observed to date, with a large statistical significance (103 events/year), and hence address the solution of several astrophysical and cosmological problems related to their existence and behaviour, a new generation of experiments will probably have to be conceived and realised. They will be based on the observation and measurements of cosmic rays from space. The extremely low rate of these events (∼ 1 event/(century × km2 × sr)) imposes a very large effective area to be monitored, of the order of 105 km2, as an observational requirement to meet the target statistics. The Extreme Universe Space Observatory (EUSO)mission has been proposed as the precursor of this new generation of experiments. Its approach consists in fact in looking downwards to the Earth atmosphere by means of a large field-of-view telescope accommodated aboard an orbiting satellite. The fluorescence strike produced by a cosmic ray through the atmosphere will be recorded by the detector, which will reconstruct the kinematical and dynamical features of the primary cosmic ray. The atmosphere acts therefore as an active target for the detectable event. A strategic tool for the success of EUSO as well as for all the experiments of its category will be a correct and detailed atmospheric sounding system, in order to monitor the atmospheric parameters within the field-of-view of the telescope. Beside an on-board measurement by means of dedicated devices such an infrared camera (IR)and possibly a LIDAR (LIght Detection And Ranging)coupled to the main instrument, the Atmosphere Sounding will take advantage from the continuous observation of the atmospheric parameters given by the orbiting meteorological satellites. Their databases have thus to be interfaced to the experimental data and used picking-up the relevant data according to the space and time coordinates corresponding to each triggered event. The present work outlines a software module (MARVIN-Multiparametric Advanced Research tool for Visualisation In the Network) able to build-up such an interface, and shows a preliminary implementation of it, using a sample of existing satellites and ISCCP meteorological data collection. It has been developed during the phase A study of the EUSO mission but is general enough to be adapted to different missions observing the Earth atmosphere from space.

At the early stage of humankind’s Space Age, the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United States of America showed an inclination to non-militarize outer space, but distrust also prompted them to carry out a series of high-altitude nuclear tests. In the end, while the non-militarization aspiration materialized on celestial bodies, in the outer void space between them only Weapons of Mass Destruction were prohibited. The last few decades have witnessed the incremental militarization of the Earth orbits. The initial phase of militarization, primarily for surveillance and early warning, was conducive to international peace and security. It is in the next phase, when space systems were integrated into warfighting capabilities and Ballistic Missile Defense systems, that outer space embarked on its reduction into a domain of conflicts. This trend was subtle in the immediate aftermath of the Cold War, and didn’t become clear until the new millennium when new space powers emerged. Today, space-based weapons and terrestrial Anti-Satellite Weapons (ASATs) form the primary security concerns for space powers, depending on their relative space capability. The disparity is difficult to reconcile, putting space arms control literally on a halt. As States with counter-space capability are also highly reliant on space, there is a growing voluntary moratorium against the test and use of debris-generating ASATs and conflicts in space are likely to take an electronic and/or cyber form. The recent rise of the strategy of “deterrence and superiority” in space, however, may distract from the formation of this voluntary moratorium, aggravate an arms race in outer space, and even increase the risk of a full-scale conflict in space.

Environmental problems and natural resources are two hot topics of earth sciences. The new satellite- and airgun geophysical observation techniques developed in the late twentieth century make it possible to monitor the real time structure, state, and dynamic processes of the Earth's atmosphere, hydrosphere, and their further interactions with the biosphere. This has been regarded as a revolutionary advance in the systematic Earth sciences. This paper systematically introduces the objectives of our proposed “Underground Bright Lump” project. This project aims to construct new three-dimensional structures of the Earth's interior in different scales. This will shed new light on our knowledge of both the Earth's interior processes (including continental dynamics) and the structure and state of the lithosphere (including the mineral resources and geological hazards).

The Palgrave Handbook of Society, Culture, and Outer Space

After exploring space for more than 50 years for research, study and defense purposes, the region above the atmosphere of earth is highly polluted by orbital debris. Figure 1 shows the total number of rocket launches in period of nine years. This has become a concern for placing satellites in their respective orbits and their safe functioning during their mission. Space debris or orbital debris colloquially known as space junk are parts of the non-functional satellites, thermal blankets, booster stages of the rockets. Those satellites are placed in the several orbits according to their missions. Mainly, they are placed in LEO (Low Earth Orbit), an earth centered orbit ranging from 200 to 2000 kilometers. Some are also placed in GEO (Geostationary Earth Orbit), at an altitude of 36000 kilometers and some are placed in the Higher Earth Orbit. Since the dawn of space age, approximately 7000 rockets have been launched, placing their payloads in several orbits of the Earth, revolving at several kilometers per second. And more than half of these objects are present in LEO. It is estimated that their sizes vary from a few millimeters to few meters, the largest being the European Envisat. Because of their high speeds, pieces of debris not more than a millimeter apart also poses a huge risk to current and upcoming space missions. Since the risk is increasing exponentially and is of great concern for all the space-faring nations, there is a need for the active removal of space debris. Hence, in this paper, the authors have analyzed the threat that space debris poses, and some of its removal techniques that have been proposed by scientists and space organizations. The authors have also suggested a few more of these Active Debris Removal techniques.

Threat detection and monitoring for space systems is a crucial aspect of maintaining the integrity and safety of satellite operations in Earth's orbit and deep space. As the number of operational satellites, space debris, and space exploration activities increase, the need for effective monitoring and threat detection systems becomes paramount. Space systems are subject to a variety of risks, including collisions with debris, unexpected orbital shifts, and the potential for cyber threats targeting satellite operations. This chapter explores the theoretical foundations of space system surveillance, focusing on the detection of space debris, monitoring of orbital anomalies, and real-time tracking of potential threats. By examining the various detection methodologies such as radar, optical telescopes, and advanced sensor technologies, the authors provide an in-depth analysis of how current systems are being adapted to protect space infrastructure. Additionally, they address challenges in space situational awareness, including data fusion, decision-making algorithms, and international cooperation efforts. The study concludes by highlighting emerging technologies and the role of global collaboration in securing space systems from growing risks.

Space has been aptly called the “final frontier” (thank you, Star Trek!). The application needs of the global space and aerospace communities are predictably many and varied, ranging from a diverse set of communications and imaging satellites, to the GPS constellation, to microwave and millimeter-wave (mmW) remote sensing to support weather forecasting and climate science, to exploration of other worlds, which include: the mighty James Webb Space Telescope (probing the origins of the universe), the shadowed polar craters of the Moon (the search for water ice), Mars surface (colonization?), and Europa (the search for extraterrestrial life in the water ocean beneath the 10 km ice cap).While classically, orbital satellites were massive, tough to launch, and extremely expensive (a few $Bs), the current (and rapidly accelerating) trend has swung decidedly towards using relatively low-cost (a few $M) and easy to launch constellations of single or multi-U CubeSats (1U = 10x10x10 cm3) to cost-effectively address the plethora of emerging needs. These days, this has been increasingly supported by commercial space ventures (e.g., SpaceX, BlueOrigin et al., vs. the old gang—NASA and DoD), which are proliferating rapidly.As appealing as space is for visioning fun new science and slick applications, it remains a decidedly unfriendly place to visit. Space is the quintessential “extreme environment,” bathed in intense radiation from both our Sun (high energy electrons and protons trapped by the Earth’s magnetosphere in radiation belts) and the cosmos (GeV energy galactic cosmic rays from supernovae). By way of level setting, a satellite in the most benign Earth orbit, Low Earth Orbit (LEO – 160-1000 km up from the surface), experiences 100,000 rad of ionizing radiation dose over mission life. In comparison, 500 rad will do a person in! That is, we are asking a lot of our electronics in such systems, and given the extreme cost constraints of launch weight, adding a few inches of lead shielding is not the ideal solution! In addition, it is mighty chilly in space (2.73 K = -455°F, the cosmic background), and when the sunlight shines on you, it gets uncomfortably warm, very quickly (e.g., on the surface of the Moon, from -180°C to +120°C from darkness to light, within a few moments). Yep, space is a tough place to do business.As I have long argued [1], SiGe HBT BiCMOS technology provides a unique solution for many of the needs of these emerging space systems, including: 1) extreme levels of performance (multi-hundred GHz) with the SiGe HBT and high integration levels with on-board CMOS, for realizing compelling system functionality/unit volume, at low cost; 2) the rapid improvement of all electronic circuit relevant performance metrics with cooling, with operational capability down into the mK quantum regime (SiGe HBTs love chilly weather!); 3) the ability to operate robustly up to 150-200°C, with modest performance loss; 4) the ability to operate robustly over wide temperature ranges (in principle from mK to 150-200°C); 5) built-in robustness to multi-Mrad total ionizing dose radiation; and 6) built-in heavy ion induced latchup immunity (read: those pesky GeV cosmic rays).Long ago (1990s), the notion of creating a low-cost Si-based electronic + photonic integrated circuit (EPIC) “superchip” was envisioned (Soref), which brought together advanced SiGe HBTs (analog, RF-mmW), CMOS (digital), and Si integrated photonics (with the possible exception of a laser, which could be flipped onto the die worse case). In essence, EPICs are a low-cost, high-yielding, reliable, highly integrated Si platform for putting electrons and light into the same conversation! Clearly this represents a paradigm shift to business as usual. Now, with even more compelling system functionality/unit volume, at low cost. Such an EPIC superchip could in principle satisfy all-comers-of-new-needs. While photonics has long been used in space (think solar cells, imagers), EPICs are new to that space game, but possess great potential for the emergent needs in this new vision of CubeSat/SmallSat driven space systems, including, thing like: LIDAR (spacecraft-to-spacecraft positioning); deep space and within-constellation optical communications (huge data rate improvement); and on-spacecraft high bandwidth data transport (think data center in the sky for instruments that spew out tons of data that need to get back home quickly). This field of EPICs in space is only a few years old, but already much has been learned, and results look very encouraging.In this invited talk, I will highlight the current status and the future trends of using SiGe electronic and photonics in space systems.[1] J.D. Cressler, Proc. IEEE, vol. 93, pp. 1559-1582, 2005. Figure 1