PESANTREN EKOLOGI, KETAHANAN PANGAN, DAN ENERGI

Economic Reforms and Food Security

Part 1 Concept and elements of food security: The concept of food security - why food insecurity?, famines and relief what about the future? - elements of food security. Part 2 Production and supply: food staple and cereal production consumption self-sufficiency ratios adequacy of consumption food security status filling the consumption gap variability of food prices. Part 3 Factors contributing to domestic production: sources of growth and variability of production - an overview the regional setting resource base and environmental concerns input supply credit research and extension marketing pricing and distribution manpower women and household food security traditional crop development. Part 4 Entitlement: distribution of landholdings landlessness and near-landlessness land reform - an answer to access and landlessness? poverty, employment and real wages household coping strategies emergency food relief emergency production support for rehabilitation general and targetted approaches to food assistance evolution of food aid by use stabilization of prices and income micro-enterprises livestock and fisheries production participation - a key to entitlement food entitlement and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Part 5 The macro-economic environment and food security: internal macro-economic environment external macro-economic environment internal and international structural adjustments and food security the world beyond - North South and South-South relations. Part 6 Options for the future: general policies targetted policies at the international level regional policies. Part 7 A final word. Annexes: country groups growth rates food security index (food supply status, food supply trends, food production trend) internal balance status of developing countries nominal and real agricultural interest rates external balance status of developing countries export prices of cereals and soybeans export prices of selected food commodities, 1985-88 long-term net aggregate flows and net transfers to developing countries employment.

Ensuring a sufficient level of food for the population in both quantitative and qualitative terms is a priority for most countries as well as for governmental and non-governmental bodies – be they national, regional or international. The United Nations (UN) stresses the fact that one of the biggest problems the world is facing today is food insecurity. Most people enjoy food security, but the reverse is an unquestionable daily reality for nearly a billion people around the world. The concept of food security has had different meanings at different times, the definition changing over the years but the fundamental concept behind it remaining the same. When defining food security, we have to adopt a comprehensive approach, taking into account the economical, political, social and cultural factors that shape it, as well as find practical solutions to ensure its continued existence. Thus, resolving the food problem and ensuring food security must start from studying the relationship between consumption needs and the available food resources, rely on anthropometric research methods, and target population segments according to their biological needs. Starting from the study of the conceptual framework offered by the specialized literature, the present paper aims to clarify and identify the aspects which lie at the basis of studying the food security / insecurity for a population, through exploratory research. The exploratory research of an individual’s food and nutritional security allows for a profound understanding of the concept, the factors that affect it and the interdependence between them, it also ensures a qualitative information gathering process. The results of the study may develop into measures aimed at improving individual food security as part of national food security. This research is done through the method of survey among the students of the Faculty of Business and Tourism, part of the Academy of Economic Studies. The statistical tool used was a questionnaire to identify the nutritional status of the respondents, but also their eating habits. Starting from the necessity of correcting imbalances in the behaviour related to food consumption, our scientific approach can be used to establish solutions for improving food consumption at the individual level, as a dimension of food security, for a segment of the population in Romania.

The article examines the evolution of the conceptual and categorical apparatus of food security, which is an important stage for understanding changes and trends in this area. The issue of food security has always been important throughout human history. At all stages of social development, ensuring adequate levels of food production and distribution has been critical to the survival and prosperity of nations. Research on the definition of food security has been reviewed and systematized and found to have evolved significantly, from an initial focus on food sufficiency to a more comprehensive approach that includes aspects of availability, utilization, and sustainability. In the early stages, the main emphasis was on providing a sufficient number of products to meet the basic needs of the population. In this context, food security was reduced to the availability of food resources at the national or regional level. The main attention was paid to the volume of food production and supply, which met the economic and demographic challenges of the time. Over time, in response to global changes and challenges such as economic crises, climate change, political instability, and growing inequality, approaches to food security have become more complex. In the 1970s, the concept of food security began to include the economic availability of food, which involved taking into account the ability of the population to purchase sufficient food. This expansion of the concept reflected the growing importance of socio-economic aspects in ensuring food security. In the 1980s, the concept of food security was supplemented by the aspect of food use. This included the proper storage, preparation, and consumption of food to ensure optimal nutrition for the population. This meant that food security issues went beyond the simple availability of food and began to encompass food quality and safety. In the early 21st century, a sustainability aspect was added to the concept of food security. It offers its own approaches to defining the concept of “food security” at different levels, which contributes to a deeper understanding of this multifaceted problem and can be useful for the development of effective strategies for ensuring food security in modern conditions.

Food and water security: Analysis of integrated modeling platforms

The concepts of food security and food sustainability are two main paradigms in the food system discourse—however, they are often addressed separately in the scientific literature. We argue that this disconnect hinders a coherent discussion of sustainability transitions, which will be necessary to solve problems (environmental, social, economic, and health) generated by conventional food systems. Our review highlights linkages between sustainability transitions and food and nutrition security using the perspective of sustainable food systems. We explore the diversity of food security narratives and food sustainability paradigms in the agro‐food arena, analyze relations between food security and food systems sustainability, and suggest options to foster a transition toward sustainable food systems. It is widely acknowledged that food systems sustainability must entail long‐term food and nutrition security in its availability, access, utilization, and stability dimensions. For food systems to deliver food and nutrition security for present and future generations, all their components need to be sustainable, resilient, and efficient. These linkages between food sustainability and food and nutrition security intersect at global, national, local, and household levels. Different strategies can be pursued to foster sustainability transitions in food systems: efficiency increase (e.g., sustainable intensification), demand restraint (e.g., sustainable diets), and food systems transformation (e.g., alternative food systems). Creating sustainable food systems requires moving from an agriculture‐centered to a food system policy and research framework. This will be fundamental to foster the complex and holistic transformation necessary to achieve sustainable food systems, which is, in turn, a prerequisite to achieving sustainable food and nutrition security.

In Sub-Saharan Africa the food supply, determined by the performance of a largely subsistence and poorly structured agriculture, remains dependent on the climatic conditions. In such situation, the training on food and nutrition and the need of curricula review processes in agricultural higher education is an important issue. The present study aimed to assess the embodiment of the concept of food security in the agricultural department of the NAZI BONI University. The department was audited using the AIFSHE tool, and a total of fifty persons attended the audit. A survey was also carried out at university and research levels where three hundred and twenty eight persons responded, and a focus group discussion was done during a workshop where a total of one hundred and fifteen stakeholders participated. The results of the audit showed good results, about the network of the university and the educational methods and pedagogy. However, the vision and strategy for food security in the country are implicit and not well defined in the university documents. The surveys reported that the curricula and research topics contained very few aspects of food security. The workshop proposed that students should be allowed in the design of food security curricula and that the food security mission at university level should be clearly defined in an integrated coordinated manner by involving many ministries, to ensure a well-balanced approach to its dimensions. With respect to research, it was highlighted that the university could focus its research activities in the area of agricultural extension in order to contribute to improving food consumption at household level and the population welfare, with the best utilisation of national funding. The findings of the study imply that agricultural higher education has a key role to play to contribute to the achievement of food and nutrition security in the country, and therefore, policy makers should give opportunities and facilities to these institutions.

Food (in)security in relation to nutrition (in)security in a national cross-sectional sample of Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program participants: considerations of an emerging construct

The concept of food security appeared in policy forums and documents during the 1970s as a concern largely for developing countries. Today, food security stands centre stage in developing and developed nations. It is a multidimensional concept, which rests on the four pillars of availability, access, utilisation and stability. As our understanding of this complex concept deepens, there are persuasive arguments to add the elements of food agency, food sovereignty and food sustainability, to make it a six-pillar framework. The argument is that this framework better informs policy and global responses to short- and long-term food security challenges. One of the main challenges of the concept of food security is its measurement. This arises due to the fact that there are multiple units of analysis at macro, meso and micro levels. Even the pillars of food security are measured at different scales. This has resulted in the proliferation of hundreds of food security metrics and definitions. The currently accepted definition of food security encapsulates the complexity of the concept but does not assist in developing appropriate metrics. Development projects in Africa that state food security as an objective need to develop relevant food security definitions to guide the assessment of achieving that objective, otherwise measuring its success is reduced to an evaluation of increase in food production—yet we know food security goes beyond production.

The concept of food security is dynamic and ever-changing. This article tries to highlight the concept of food security and its changing dimensions with respect to space and time. The article examines the shift of the concept from aggregate food availability, which is a function of domestic agricultural production, trade and food aid focusing on the supply side, to food accessibility which is a function of income or purchasing power focusing on the demand side. The analysis here also incorporates other dimensions of food security such as food stability, food utilization, food vulnerability, food sustainability, risk measurement, anthropometry, etc. Moreover, apart from providing a comprehensive picture of the evolution of the different dimensions of food security historically, the present article also tries to present the involution of the concept of food security in such a way the that it can be easily understood. Also reviewed here are the indicators and measurement processes that are currently being used by scholars of different organizations and institutions for the analysis of food security. The article concludes that the concept of food security is a dynamic and vital phenomenon and there is no benchmark or standard method to measure food security. Thus, researchers and policy makers should very judiciously choose the indicators while keeping in mind what dimension of food security they are going to deal with.

Working through the complexities of food insecurity with the intention to address issues requires taking a step back to the drawing board to firm up the understanding of food security through the principles that inform the governance framework of the right to food in the context of the current global food security crisis. Considering the multi-dimensional nature of food security in relation to the right to food alongside concepts such as food sovereignty, and issues such as climate change, food loss and food waste, economic and political turmoil is paramount in determining exactly why all people at all times do not have access to adequate food, or the means for its procurement. This commentary delves into the intricacies of the concept of food security, and the hindrances to realising food security for all by considering what food security is, and where, therefore, the challenges in effecting the right to food are. Through careful consideration of the components of the food security equation, this commentary seeks to show how the right to food comes down to more than ensuring that food is physically available. By connecting the right to food to the factors that affect food security and exploring the ways in which those factors can be broken down and addressed separately, this commentary ultimately advocates for the realisation of food security through collaboration. The consideration of the singular concepts that form the food security equation in solving the multi-dimensional food security problem through conjoined and synchronised efforts influenced by obligations of states and international organisations with mandates directly connected to, and influencing the different aspects of the food security equation. Using reports, statistics, theories and academic opinions, this commentary seeks to explore the different components, which form the concept of food security to draw conclusions and analyse existing systems in an attempt to determine what approaches could be considered in addressing the growing food security crisis and the concerns attached to it. Key words: Food security, right to food, climate change, crisis, malnutrition, food loss, food waste

PurposeIn our world, nearly nine million people die every year from hunger, losing one person to hunger every few seconds. Ethiopia is among the leading countries in the total number of people facing hunger. Several actions have been taken to achieve food security globally and at the household level. However, the problem of food insecurity is still high in many parts of the world. Why are we failing to achieve food security? And where should we start? This study aims to answer these main questions.Design/methodology/approachRelevant quantitative and qualitative data were duly used to describe food insecurity and associated climate factors globally and nationally. For this, PRISMA review methodology was used to help the systematic review. More than 90 relevant empirical and theoretical literature in the field were reviewed in an integrated way with practical evidence from Ethiopia. Governmental technical reports, NGOs reviews and other relevant empirical data referring to Ethiopia are thematically analyzed.FindingsThe subjectivity, dynamism and complexity of the concept of food security are found to be some of the issues challenging the practice of achieving food security. The unresolved issues in the combination and interaction of the four pillars of food security (food availability, access to food, food utilization and stability) are affecting its measurement. In this study, it is emphasized that food insecurity in rural and urban areas should be treated differently, as food insecurity in rural areas is directly related to food production which depends on rainfall patterns. In rural Ethiopia, rainfall variability was among the main causes of food insecurity. More importantly, it is indicated that rainfall variability does not affect all pillars of food security equally; its effect is more pronounced on food availability and stability aspects. Deconstructing the concept of food security to make it more pragmatic, and understanding the factors behind the rainfall variability should be the starting tasks in achieving food security. Further, even though food aid is preferred to react to transitory food insecurity, focusing on long-lasting preventive measures that address the root causes of the recurring food insecurity in rural areas of Ethiopia would be an effective way of addressing the problem.Practical implicationsPolicy makers and other governmental and humanitarian agencies working on food security can make an evidence-based decision, shape policies and programs if they have clear information about the features of food insecurity, the nature of rainfall variability and critiques of the reacting mechanisms to food insecurity. Shortages of food in some place and food price crises in the other places have been both referring to food insecurity. This makes the understanding of food security situations more difficult to explain and communicate.Originality/valueThis study primarily clarifies the conceptual complexity surrounding food security as it currently exists. Further, it provides a comprehensive and quantitative description of the state of global to national food security, along with the associated variability of rainfall patterns that are related to it. It also provides a brief overview of the intervention mechanisms for addressing food security, with a specific focus on Ethiopia. This study has set a clear demarcation to assess food security in rural and urban areas.

Currently, threats to food security reach a global scale. To a large extent, this is caused by the full-scale invasion of Russia on the territory of Ukraine and the losses that occurred as a result of the war. In general, before the war, Ukraine supplied 10% of world exports of wheat, more than 15–20% of barley, and more than 50% of sunflower oil. After the Russian invasion, Ukraine restricted the export of some grains. According to the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, Michelle Bachelet, due to Ukraine's war with Russia, the number of people with a lack of food will increase by 47 million during the year and will be almost 323 million by the end of the year. First of all, the term food security refers to the availability of food for people without any scarcity, and it is considered that food security is effectively achieved when a person is not afraid of or susceptible to hunger, and is used as a criterion to prevent food shortages or disruptions in the future in a few factors Such factors are considered dangerous, including drought and wars and other problems, if they threaten food security. Absolute food security is defined as the production of food in one country at a level equal to or even exceeding domestic demand and can sometimes be considered to achieve the concept of complete self-sufficiency. Indicators of relative food security relate to the state's ability to produce and supply what the population needs in the form of food in whole or in part. From this we conclude that the concept of food security refers to the need to provide the population with the necessary food products, which may depend on cooperation with other countries or only on self-sufficiency. The Covid-15 pandemic and the war have broken many chains of the global food security system, and as a result, there have been significant disruptions in the uninterrupted supply of food to consumers at reasonable prices. The methodology is based on the analysis of scientific problems according to the nature of the research object, based on such methods of scientific knowledge as direct (empirical) analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, historical method. The results of the study relate to the presentation of the concept of food security and the degree of influence on it by natural disasters and geopolitical conflicts, in particular the war between Russia and Ukraine, the study of individual indicators of Ukrainian exports that affect the food security of some Arab and African countries, as well as the volumes of production and exports in different periods . Such indicators show a brief overview of the importance of Ukraine as a "food-nurse" for some countries and the consequences that will occur if the supply of agricultural products from Ukraine is stopped from both large and small businesses.

Over the past five decades, the concept of food security (FS) has taken on various meanings (Smith et al. 1992; Maxwell 1996; Carolan 2013b). Although food is clearly the common denominator, it is the emphasis on security that is less consistent, swaying from yields to calories, from states to households, and from metrics to perceptions (Maxwell 1996). The changing emphases consequently lead to food security being enacted for different objectives and justifications. For one thing, food insecurity within the increasing global populations has become the main driver of producing food at an amazingly rapid rate (Godfray et al. 2010). Yet, food security is also one of the reasons for the flourishing of local and alternative food networks (AFNs) in many parts of the world—encompassing wider concepts such as food sovereignty and food justice (Jaroz 2014). This prompts the question: if food security is understood and valued through a variety of meanings (Mooney and Hunt 2009), how should we then re-frame actions emerging from food security within changing contexts? Inspired by a lively discussion in a working group session at the annual meeting of the Australasian Agrifood Network in 2013, this symposium offers various ways to contextualize food security to different urban and rural contexts. The symposium stems from a realisation that food security, despite being the subject of extensive literature, still lacks a satisfactory theoretical explanation to account for the large divergence of actions observed to date. Indeed, the current literature represents food security as a state/condition, in which a society is linked to food at a particular time and space (Godfray et al. 2010; Naylor and Dean 2012; Carolan 2013b). However, the definition also embodies multiple aspects of, and actions sprouting from, political, economic, social and ecological realms. If food security is to be seen as the desirable outcome against foodrelated uncertainty that is pervading our current times, then disagreement on how to get there implies a re-definition of the actors and relationships involved. Consequently, there is a need to shift emphasis from understanding ‘how food security is to be measured’ towards ‘how food security is to be performed’ in a given context. This symposium analyses limitations and strengths of local and AFNs in its contribution to the discourse on food security, opening a constructive dialogue between different theoretical approaches and grounded-empirical research on a wider understanding of food security, where the link with ‘local food’ and ‘alternative food networks’ is considered as central. & Cinzia Piatti cinzia.piatti@libero.it; cinzia.piatti@otago.ac.nz

Water, energy, and food insecurity are significant challenges that affect both economies and households, particularly in developing countries. These resources have an effect on households wellbeing, businesses, and all sectors of the economy, making them critical to ensuring household well-being, which is frequently measured by quintile welfare. As a result, there has been a significant increase in interest in securitizing these resources in order to mitigate their negative effects on household's wellbeing This study provides an empirical investigation of the determinants of water, energy, and food (WEF) security and the effect of water, energy, and food security on household well-being in Ghana. This study provides an empirical investigation of the determinants of water, energy, and food (WEF) security and the effect of water, energy, and food security on household well-being in Ghana. The study used a sample of 2,735 households from the Ghana Living Standard Survey (GLSS) Wave 7. We applied an instrumental variable probit, complementary log-log and ordered Probit estimation techniques for analysis. Empirical analysis reveals several important findings. Firstly, factors such as age, credit access, household location, employment status, and livestock ownership positively contribute to household water security, while remittances, water supply management, water bills, and water quantity have negative impacts. Secondly, age, marital status, household size, remittances, and livestock ownership significantly influence household energy security. Thirdly, marital status, household income, credit access, and household size are crucial determinants of household food security, with residence and region of household location exerting negative effects. Additionally, while water and energy security have a relatively lower impact on household well-being, food security emerges as a key driver in promoting household wellbeing. The study recommends that policymakers and stakeholders design and implement robust programs and interventions to sustain households' water, energy, and food supply.